Nippon no Chuusei no Rekishi
bnos...@lynx.northeastern.edu
suprised to see such a flury of interest in Japan during my unfortuante
abscence.
Joumon-jidai (7000BC - 200 BC)
This is Japanese pre-history consisting of hunter-gatherer societies.
With primitive agriculture using stone-age tools. Although the
current official position of MONBUSHO is that these people are the
ancestors of the modern Japanese, it is almost certainly not the case.
At least it is unlikely that the Joumon-jidai people were the cultural
or even the direct linguistic ancestors of the Japanese. The remains
from this period consist of stone artifacts including Venus figures.
Yayoi-jidai (200BC - 100 CE)
This is the Japanese neolithic period which left articats consiting
of stone agricultural tools such as the magatama or hand-scythe which
is currently believed to have been used in harvesting grain. Some
examples of the magatama are drilled so that they can have a cord
strung through them. The end of this period consists of the Japanese
bronze age. There is a variety of artifacts from this period
including wooden combs, bronze bells and gold seals. Thus, trade with
China was established during this period.
Kofun-jidai (100 - 562)
The haniwa figures similar to the figures found in China date from
this period. A Kofun is an ancient burial tumulus. It is recorded
that is ancient times the emperor was intered with living servants.
Apparently, as in China, the haniwa figures came to substitute for
living servants. This is the period of the arival of the pony
soldiers. This represnts a general migration from the Korean
peninsula which is probably the actual origin of the Japanese people.
During this general period, the Chinese recorded that they were in
contact with "Queendoms" in Kyuushu. Whether there were actually
matriarchal governments at this time is subject to debate. However,
the practice of sepparate residences for marriage partners and general
female autonomy continued until the end of the Heian period. Further,
there are historical empresses. And, empresses ruled occasionally
even during Asuka-jidai. An important feature of politics during
this period is the close political contact with Korea and
participation in Korean politics. Further, Japan payed occasional
tribute to China during this period.
Another feature of this period is the prominence of clans.
Later, the clans largely died out and most of their names fell
into disuse. However, at this time, Shinto was emerging as the
center of communal life. Like certain Germanic tribes, Japanese
clans claimed a common relationship with a particular god and one
of the cheif functions of the clan head was essentially religious.
This eventually coallesced into the Emperor and the attendant
nobles.
Asuka-jidai (562-645)
During this period Japan began to emulate Chinese government.
And the clan chiefs began to be less important. Monumental
Buddhist temples are also built.
Hakuhou-jidai (645-710)
The empirial government was reorganized along Chinese lines
in 645. The government was divided into 3 departments under
the emperor and the country was divided into administrative
districts. While this system did not prove to be effective, it remained
nominally in force until the Meiji Restoration in the 19th century.
Nara-jidai (710-794)
The first of the Chinese style empirial cities is established and
classical Buddhism flourishes.
Heian-jidai (794-1184)
To escape the depredations of the warrior monks, the capital was
first relocated to Nagaokakyou and finally in 794 to Heiankyou
Nara-jidai and Heian-jidai are the true classical periods of Japanese
civilization. Ultimately the emperor lost power to the court nobility
(espicially the Fujiwara) and in turn the court nobility lost power to
their rusticated cousines and retainers.
The court nobility maintained control of the emperor by forcing
marriages and naming their own descendents heir and by forcing the
early retirement of each emperor so that the emperor was always an
infant. Thus, the office of Kanpaku (Regent) was available and
was filled by a member of the dominant noble family. During much
of Heian-jidai, this was the Fujiwara family. Ironically, the
Fujiwara family attained prominance by helping the empirial family
to destroy the Soga who had earlier attempted to attain power by
the same means. The empirial family attempted to maintain influence
by establishing a second court for the cloistered emperors in 1086.
Although the equal-fields policy borrowed from the Chinese asserted
that all lands ultimately belonged to the Emperor. Lands were sceded
by the Emperor when establishing Buddhist temples. Further, lands
came into the posession of various noble families and through them
to their rusticated retainers and cousins in the countryside. For
the peasant, consigning their allotment to a temple or to one of the
great families confered the advantage of immunity to labour levies.
Thus, the tax base of the empirial family gradually erroded. Further,
the rusticated nobility employed retainers (Samurai) who provided
their territory with a military defense which the capital was
increasingly incapable of.
The Japanese medieval period truely begins with the GENPEI war
between the Minamoto and the Taira clans. The Taira secured control
of the empirial government through palace intrigue and were eventually
overthrown by the Minamoto.
First Taira Kiyomori succeeded in having himself proclaimed Taiseidaijin
and arranged for one of his infant descendents being named emperor.
However, the Heike left the empirial government intact and ruled the
country from their villas in Heiankyou. Seeing their oportunity, the
Minamoto rebelled and eventually destroyed the Taira and the infant emperor.
The Minamoto chose to establish a military "tent" government at
Kamakura rather than loosing their martial spirit in the capital.
This government had its own structure and offices and acted in parallel
to the by this time rather powerless empirial government. The emperor
however continued to represent an important cultural property and was
the imprimateur of legitamacy and therefore the empirial capital and
the empirial court remained important culural objects in Japanese
politics. The role of culture in Japanese politics must not be under
estimated. Otherwise, the role of figures such as Sen no Rikyuu is
incomprehensible Begining with this period the emperor's familiy was
gradually impoverished.
Kamakura-jidai ( 1184-1333)
During this period there was an Emperor in Heiankyou who usually
abdicated when very young. Official functions were generally
performed by the Kampaku who was the empirial regent. Although,
the first three Shoguns were from the Minamoto clan, later Shoguns
were from the Fujiwara clan which was one of the ancient noble
clans. However, the actual military government was after 1219
controled by a member of the Houjou clan who was appointed Sikken
or Shogunal regent. Further, the retired emperors were gathered
together in a cloister and were attempting to influence Japanese
politics as well.
[Kenbu Shinsei 1333-1336]
Emperial government was briefly restored with Emperor Godaigo when
he emerged from the cloistered palace and reinstituted empirial rule.
However, the Kenbushinsei was short lived and collapsed with the
division over the empirial succession in 1338.
Muromachi-jidai (1336-1573)
Nanbokuchou (1338-1392)
The Ashikaga Bakfu is established in 1336.
During this period there are two emperors and two courts called
the Northern court and the Southern court.
Sengoku-jidai (1467-1568)
The Onin-Ran (Rebellion) results in the collapse fo the Ashikaga
Bakfu and results in the period of waring states.
Atzuchimomoyama-jidai (1568-1603)
In 1568 Oda Nobunaga enters Heiankyou and restores national
government.
Edo-jidai (1603-1868)
The closure of the Japanese middle ages can be variously dated to:
1) National Unification under Oda Nobunaga 1568
2) The Battle of Sekigahara 1600
3) Tokugawa Ieyasu becoming Shogun 1603
4) Closure of Japan 1635
Of these, the investiture of Tokugawa Ieyasu as Shogun is
preferable, because it marks the institution of the post-medieval
government. Further, the institutionalization of Edo culture
date roughly from this time.
During this period the Daimyou and the Samurai are systematically
impovrished. Many Samurai revert to being farmers, others open
schools while others make fans or become actors. Those who remain
become petty beurocrats.
[Meiji-Restoration 1868]
The Samurai loose multiple battles to the conscript armies of
the Meijir-Restoration. The feudal structure is dismantled.
The Samurai are given pensions and briefly forbidden to wear
two swords.
PLAGUE in JAPAN
I know of no records of plague in Japan on the scale which was
experienced in Europe. This can be attributed to both the
practice of bathing in Japan and to the generally greater level
of sanitation in Japan. There were fewer rats and fecal matterial
was not allowed to accumulate in cities. Regardless, plague is
conspicuous by its abscence from Japanese history books.
KEEPING WARM at NIGHT
The Koreans have long had a system for heating their floors.
Currently the prefered system is to pipe heated water under the
floor but the older system is to have a slow burning fire under the
floor. This causes a considerable problem with carbon monoxide.
Thus, carbon monoxide poisoning is currently the prefered mode of
family suicide in Seoul Korea.
Although I am uncertain of its antiquity, the Japanese have foot
warmers. The ones which I have actually used consist of a metal
jacket into which can be inserted hot rocks or glowing coals.
The jacket is wrapped in a towel so that the feet are not burned.
It is likely that this system in some form is quite ancient.
When not asleep, the Japase keep warm by sitting around a Kotatsu.
Originally this was an adaptation of the fire-pit or "ro". In
the case of a fire pit it is actually possible to place one's legs
down into the pit. Regardless, a low table is placed over the
heat source and covered with a quilt to keep the warmth in. Finally,
there is the "hibachi" which is a large pot of wood or ceramic about
one meter tall filled with sand or ash on which is built a small
fire. These were typically used during the day time.
I am sorry that I am unable at this time to give a more adequate response
to the various questions raised over the last few days. I am particularly
honoured that at least one of the posters mentioned me by name.
Solveig Throndardottir