The Silence of the Commander of the Faithful Imam Ali (A.S.)
HReza Zabeth
The Silence of the Commander of the Faithful Imam Ali (A.S.)
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
Now, let us examine why after the event of Saqifah and the commencement of Abubakr’s rule, ‘Ali (‘a) did not insist on claiming his indisputable right, and why after obtaining certainty on the ineffectiveness of some months of arguments and proofs, he did not resort to armed struggle.
In view of the fact that a number of the Prophet’s (S) great Companions were his staunch supporters and that the common Muslims had also no opposition to him, it can be said in general that the Commander of the Faithful ‘Ali (‘a) took into account the interest of Islam and the Muslims and preferred to keep silent. As he (‘a) says in his Khutbah ash-Shaqshaqiyyah,
فَسَدَلْتُ دُونَهَا ثَوْباً، وَطَوَيْتُ عَنْهَا كَشْحاً ، وَطَفِقْتُ أَرْتَئِي بَيْنَ أَنْ أَصُولَ بِيَد جَذَّاءَ ، أَوْ أَصْبِرَ عَلَىٰ طَخْيَة عَمْيَاءَ، يَهْرَمُ فيهَا الكَبيرُ، وَيَشِيبُ فِيهَا الصَّغِيرُ، وَيَكْدَحُ فِيهَا مُؤْمِنٌ حَتَّى يَلْقَىٰ رَبَّهُ. فَرَأَيْتُ أَنَّ الصَّبْرَ عَلَىٰ هَاتَا أَحْجَىٰ ، فَصَبَرتُ وَفي الْعَيْنِ قَذىً، وَفي الحَلْقِ شَجاً ، أرىٰ تُرَاثي نَهْباً.
I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it. Then I began to think whether I should assault or endure calmly the blinding darkness of tribulations wherein the grown-up are made feeble and the young grow old and the true believer acts under strain till he meets Allah (on his death). I found that endurance thereon was wiser. So I adopted patience although there was pricking in the eye and suffocation (of mortification) in the throat. I watched the plundering of my inheritance…[1][173]
Of course, keeping ‘Ali’s (‘a) speech in view, other secondary factors concerning his silence can be pointed out.
1. The Discord among Muslims
The Commander of the Faithful (‘a) says:
إنّ الله لَمّا قَبَضَ نَبِيَّهُ اِسْتَأثَرَثْ عَلَيْنا قُرَيشٌ بِالاَمْرِ وَ دَفَعَتْنا عَنْ حَقٍّ نَحْنُ اَحَقُّ بِهِ مِنَ النّاسِ كافَّةً فَرَأيْتُ اَنَّ الصَّبْرَ عَلىٰ ذٰلِكَ اَفْضَلُ مِنْ تَفريقِ كَلِمَةِ المُسْلِمِينَ وَ سَفْكِ دِمائِهِمْ وَ النّاسُ حَدِيثُو عَهْدٍ بِالاِسلام وَالدّينِ يُمْخَضْ مَخْضَ الوَطْبِ، يُفسَدهُ اَدْنىٰ وَهَنٍ وَ يَعكسه اَقَلُّ خُلْفٍ.
When God took the soul of His Prophet, the Quraysh self-centeredly considered themselves superior to us and deprived us—who were the most deserving for the leadership of the ummah—of our own rights. But I saw that patience and forbearance with respect to this affair is better than the dissension of Muslims and shedding of their blood. It is because the people then had newly embraced Islam and the religion was like a goatskin full of milk which has frothed and the least sluggishness and negligence would spoil it and the most trivial difference would turn it upside down.[2][174]
2. The Danger Posed by the Apostates {murtaddin}
After the demise of the Prophet (S), a large number of the Arab tribes that had accepted Islam during the last years of the Prophet’s (S) life turned back from the religion and became apostate, and this danger always seriously threatened Medina. As such, in order not to weaken the government in Medina in front of them, ‘Ali (‘a) was forced to keep silent. ‘Ali (‘a) says:
فَوَاللهِ مَا كَانَ يُلْقَى فِي رُوعِي، وَلاَ يَخْطُرُ بِبَالِي، أَنَّ الْعَرَبَ تُزْعِجُ هذَا الاََْمْرَ مِنْ بَعْدِهِ صلى الله عليه وآله عَنْ اَهْل بَيْتِهِ، وَلاَ أَنَّهُمْ مُنَحُّوهُ عَنِّي مِنْ بَعْدِهِ فَمَا رَاعَنِي إِلاَّ انْثِيَالُ النَّاسِ عَلَى فُلاَنٍ يُبَايِعُونَهُ، فَأَمْسَكْتُ يَدِي حَتَّى رَأيْتُ رَاجِعَةَ النَّاسِ قَدْ رَجَعَتْ عَنِ الاِِْسْلاَمِ، يَدْعُونَ إِلَى مَحْقِ دِينِ مُحَمَّدٍ صلى الله عليه وآله فَخَشِيتُ إِنْ لَمْ أَنْصُرِ الاِسْلامَ وَ اَهْلَهُ أَنْ أَرَى فِيهِ ثَلْماً أَوْ هَدْماً، تَكُونُ الْمُصِيبَةُ بِهِ عَلَيَّ أَعْظَمَ مِنْ فَوْتِ وِلاَيَتِكُمُ الَّتِي إِنَّمَا هِيَ مَتَاعُ أَيَّامٍ قَلاَئِلَ، يَزُولُ مِنْهَا مَا كَانَ، كَمَا يَزُولُ السَّرَابُ، اَوْ كَمَا يَتَقَشَّعُ السَّحَابُ، فَنَهَضْتُ فِي تِلْكَ الاََْحْدَاثِ حَتَّى انزَاحَ الْبَاطِلُ وَزَهَقَ وَاطْمَأَنَّ الدِّينُ وَ تَنَهْنَهَ.
I swear by Allah that at that juncture it could not even be imagined that the Arabs would snatch the seat of the caliphate from the family and descendants of the Holy Prophet (S) and that they would be swearing the oath of allegiance for the caliphate to a different person. At every stage, I kept myself aloof from that struggle of supremacy and power-politics till I found the heretics had openly taken to heresy and schism and were trying to undermine and ruin the religion preached by our Holy Prophet (S).
I felt afraid that, even after seeing and recognizing the evil, if I did not stand up to help Islam and the Muslims it would be a worse calamity to me than my losing authority and power over you, which was only a transient and short-lived affair. Therefore, when I stood up amidst the sweeping surge of innovations and schism the dark clouds of heresy dispersed, falsehood and schism were crushed and the religion was saved.[3][175]
Imam al-Hasan (‘a) also writes in a letter to Mu‘awiyah: “Since we were afraid that the hypocrites and the other Arab parties could render a blow to Islam, we ignored our right.”[4][176]
Even a number of those in whose heart faith had not entered, as testified by the Qur’an, and had accepted Islam out of compulsion, as demanded by their inner hypocrisy, they did not accept the guardianship {wilayah} of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a). They even complained about this guardianship during the Prophet’s (S) lifetime. On the commentary of the Qur’anic verse, “An asker asked for a punishment bound to befall,”[5][177] Tabarsi has thus narrated from Imam as-Sadiq (‘a):
After the event of Ghadir Khumm, a nomadic Arab by the name of Nu‘man ibn al-Harith al-Fihri came to the Prophet (S) and said: “You commanded us to testify that there is no deity but Allah and that you are the Messenger of Allah. You ordered us to perform jihad, fast, pray, and pay zakah and we obeyed. But you are not satisfied with all this and you raised your cousin by your hand and imposed him upon us as our master by saying ‘‘Ali is the master {mawla} of whom I am mawla.’
Is this imposition from Allah or from you?” The Messenger of Allah (S) said: “By Allah who is the only deity! This is from Allah, the Mighty and the Glorious.” On hearing this reply Nu‘man ibn al-Harith turned back and proceeded toward his she-camel saying: “O Allah! If what Muhammad said is correct then fling on us a stone from the sky and subject us to severe pain and torture.” He had not reached his she-camel when Allah flung at him a stone which struck him on his head, penetrated his body and left him dead. It was on this occasion that Allah, the Exalted, caused to descend this verse.[6][178]
In the event of Saqifah, these people were also siding with the Quraysh. As narrated by Abu Mikhnaf, a number of nomadic Arabs, who had to the vicinity of Medina for transactions and were present in Medina during the demise of the Prophet (S), had actual physical role in urging the people to pay allegiance to Abubakr.[7][179]
3. The Safety of the Progeny of the Prophet (S)
The original inheritors of the Prophet (S) and the upright adherents of the religion are the members of the Prophet’s (S) family. They were the partner of the Qur’an, the second previous legacy of the Prophet (S) and the interpreters of the religious laws, and they showed to the people the pristine and genuine Islam after the Prophet’s (S) demise. Their extinction would be an irreparable loss. The Commander of the Faithful said:
فَنَظَرْتُ فِإِذا لَيسَ لي مُعينٌ إلاّ أهلُ بَيتى فَضَنَنْتُ بِهِمْ عَنِ المَوْتِ.
“Then, I looked and found that there is no supporter for me except my family {ahla bayti}, so I refrained from thrusting them unto death.”[8][180]
The Concrete Political Formation of the Shi‘ah after the Event of Saqifah
Although ‘Ali (‘a) distanced himself from the political scene with the formation of Saqifah, the Shi‘ah in the form of a particular group with a particular political orientation was formed after the event in Saqifah and were collectively or individually defending the truthfulness of ‘Ali (‘a).
They first gathered in Fatimah’s (‘a) house and refused to pay allegiance (to Abubakr) as they faced the onslaught of the Saqifah architects.[9][181] But since ‘Ali (‘a) was not pleased to act violently against them for the sake of the preservation of Islam, he challenged them to a debate and argumentation. Bara’ ibn ‘Azib thus narrates:
I missed the cases regarding Saqifah. As I went to the Mosque of the Prophet (S) {Masjid an-Nabi}, I saw Miqdad, ‘Ubadah ibn Samit, Salman al-Farsi, Abu Dharr, Hudhayfah, and Abu’l-Haytham ibn Tayyiham were talking about the event that took place after the demise of the Prophet (S). He went together to the house of Ubayy ibn Ka‘b who said that his view is the same with whatever Hudhayfah would say.[10][182]
Finally, on that Friday, the Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a) went to the Prophet’s (S) Mosque to debate with and condemn Abubakr. In this regard, Tabarsi thus narrates:
Aban ibn Taghlib asks Imam as-Sadiq (‘a): “May I be your ransom! When Abubakr sat in the place of the Messenger of Allah (S), was there anyone who protested?” The Imam (‘a) said: “Yes; there were twelve persons from among the Muhajirun and the Ansar such as Khalid ibn Sa‘id; Salman al-Farsi; Abu Dharr; Miqdad; ‘Ammar; Buraydah Aslami; Abu’l-Haytham ibn Tayyihan; Sahl ibn Hanif; ‘Uthman ibn Hanif; Khuzaymah ibn Thabit Dhu’sh-Shahadatayn; Ubayy ibn Ka‘b; and Abu Ayyub al-Ansari.
They gathered in a certain place and discussed together the event in Saqifah and were thinking of a solution. Some said: “We shall go to the mosque and let Abubakr come down from the pulpit. Some others did not agree with this idea, considering it unadvisable. They then came to ‘Ali (‘a) and said: “We will go and pull Abubakr down from the pulpit.”
The Imam (‘a) said: “They are many. Once you go ahead with this and act violently, they will come and say: “You pay allegiance otherwise we shall kill you.” Instead, you have to go to him and tell him what you have heard from the Messenger of Allah (S) and this is all of the proof. They came to the mosque and the first person among them who spoke was Khalid ibn Sa‘id al-Umawi, saying: “O Abubakr! You are aware that after the Battle of Banu Nadhir, the Holy Prophet (S) said: ‘You have to know and keep my will. After me, ‘Ali shall be my caliph and successor among you. My Lord has thus ordered me’.” After him, Salman stood up and made his famous statement in Persian language: “Kardid, nakardid.”[11][183]
After their argumentation, Abubakr descended from the pulpit, went to his house and did not go out for three days until such time that Khalid ibn Walid, Salim Mawla Abu Hudhayfah and Mu‘adh ibn Jabal along with many others went to Abubakr’s house and gave him will power. ‘Umar went along with this group to the mosque entrance and said: “O Shi‘ah and supporters of ‘Ali! Be aware that if you would utter these words again, I will behead you.”[12][184]
Similarly, a number of those Shi‘ah from among the Companions who, at the time of the Prophet’s (S) demise, were on a mission outside Medina, such as Khalid ibn Sa‘id and his two brothers, Aban and ‘Amru, protested against Abubakr after their return from their place of mission. As a sign of protest, all the three brothers did not continue their function which was collection of zakah, saying: “We shall not work for someone else after the Prophet (S).”[13][185]
In addressing ‘Ali (‘a), Khalid ibn Sa‘id said: “Come forward so that I could pay my allegiance to you as you are the most deserving person in the position of Muhammad (S).”[14][186]
Throughout the 25 years of the three caliphs’ rule, The Shi‘ah from among the Companions were always introducing ‘Ali (‘a) as the caliph and commander of the faithful in truth. ‘Abd Allah ibn Mas‘ud used to say, “Based on the injunction of the Qur’an, there are four caliphs, viz. Adam (Adam), Dawud (David), Harun (Aaron), and ‘Ali.”[15][187]
Hudhayfah also used to say: “Anyone who wants to witness the Commander of the Faithful in truth shall meet ‘Ali.”[16][188]
Harith ibn Khazraj, the standard-bearer of the Ansar in the battles of the Prophet (S), used to narrate that the Holy Prophet (S) said to ‘Ali (‘a): “The inhabitants of the heavens have called you ‘Commander of the Faithful’ {Amir al-Mu’minin}’.”[17][189]
Ya‘qubi writes:
After the six-man council proposed by ‘Umar and the selection of ‘Uthman, some were showing inclination toward ‘Ali and speaking against ‘Uthman. A certain person thus narrates: “I entered the Mosque of the Prophet {Masjid an-Nabi}. I saw a man sitting on his two knees so impatiently as if he was shouldering the entire world, and while being taken by them, he was addressing the people: ‘How surprising the Quraysh are!
They took out the caliphate from the family of the Prophet while among this family was the first believer, cousin of the Messenger of Allah, the most learned and knowledgeable of people about the religion of God, and most insightful of people to the right course and the Straight Path {Sirat al-Mustaqim}. They took the caliphate from the Imam of guidance, the guided {mahdi}, pure {tahir} and chaste {naqi}, and their objective was not for the reformation of the ummah and religiosity. They rather preferred the world to the hereafter’.”
The narrator says: “I approached and asked him: ‘May Allah be merciful to you! Who are you? And who is the person you are talking about?’ He said: ‘I am Miqdad ibn ‘Amru and that person (I am referring to) is ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib.’ I said: ‘You stage an uprising and I will help you.’ Miqdad said: ‘My son, this work cannot be done by just one or two persons’.”[18][190]
During the caliphate of ‘Uthman, Abu Dharr al-Ghaffari also used to stand by the door of the Mosque of the Prophet (S) and say:
Anyone who knows me has recognized me and anyone who does not know me should then know that I am Jundab ibn Junadah, Abu Dharr al-Ghaffari… Muhammad (S) is the inheritor of the knowledge of Adam (Adam) (‘a) and all virtues of the prophets (‘a), and ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (‘a) is the successor of Muhammad (S) and the inheritor of his knowledge.
O confounded and wandering ummah after the Prophet (S)! Be aware that if you would have made superior the person who had been made superior by God and have fixed the wilayah {guardianship} on the family of your Prophet, blessings from above and below will be bestowed on you and every matter you would want the information about which will be obtained from them from the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet. But now, you did something else, you would see the consequences of what you have done.[19][191]
Yes, the group of the first Shi‘ah and its formation had been initiated by the great Companions of the Prophet (S), and through these same Shi‘ah from the Companions that Shi‘ism was transferred to the next generation of the Tabi‘un {Followers}. And it was the result of their efforts that at the end of the rule of ‘Uthman, from the political perspective, the ground for ‘Ali’s (‘a) caliphate was paved.
Summary
1. Hadrat ‘Ali (‘a) overlooked his right and kept silent for the sake and interest of Islam. Keeping in view his statements in this regard, the following factors can be identified:
a. The discord among Muslims;
b. The danger posed by the apostates {murtaddin}; and
c. The safety of the progeny of the Prophet (‘a).
2. After the event of Saqifah, Shi‘ah was formed as a special group with a particular political orientation, and they individually and collectively defended the truthfulness of ‘Ali (‘a).
They gathered in the house of Fatimah (‘a), interpolated Abubakr in the mosque, and for the period of 25 years, they used to persistently introduce ‘Ali (‘a) as the rightful caliph to the people.
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The Shi‘ah among the Companions (sahabah)
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
We said earlier that the first person to call the followers of ‘Ali (‘a) as “Shi‘ah” was the receiver of the divine revelation, Muhammad al-Mustafa (S). During the time of the Holy Prophet (S) a number of his Companions were known as “Shi‘ah of ‘Ali”. In Khatat ash-Sham, Muhammad Kird ‘Ali thus writes:
During the period of the Holy Prophet (S), a number of the great Companions was known for their fellowship and friendship with ‘Ali such as Salman al-Farsi who used to say: “We pledged allegiance to the Messenger of Allah (S) that we would be the well-wishers of Muslims and that we follow and befriend ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib”; and Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri who used to say: “We were ordered five things, of which the people acted upon the four but have abandoned one of them.”
He was asked: “What are the four?” He replied: “Prayer, zakat, fasting in the month of Ramadan, and Hajj” He was again asked: “What is the thing that the people abandoned?” He replied: “The wilayah {mastership} of ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib.”
The person asked: “Is this also obligatory like the others?” {Among the Shi‘ah were} also Abu Dharr al-Ghiffari, ‘Ammar ibn Yasir, Khadiqah ibn Yaman, Khuzaymah ibn Thabit Dhu’sh-Shahadatayn, Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, Khalid ibn Sa‘id, and Qays ibn Sa‘d.[20][192]
Regarding the pioneering Shi‘ah, Ibn Abi’l-Hadid also says, thus:
The talk on the superiority of ‘Ali is an old subject in which a great number of the Companions and Followers {tabi‘un} believed. Among the Companions were ‘Ammar; Miqdad; Abu Dharr; Salman; Jabir; Ubayy ibn Ka‘b; Hudhayfah; Buraydah; Abu Ayyub; Sahl ibn Hunayf; ‘Uthman ibn Hunayf; Abu’l-Haytham ibn Tayyihan; Khuzaymah ibn Thabit; Abu’t-Tufayl ‘Amir ibn Wathilah; ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; and all members of the Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib. At the beginning, Zubayr also believed in ‘Ali’s superiority. They were a few from among the Banu Umayyah such as Khalid ibn Sa‘id and later on, ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz.[21][193]
In Ad-Darajat ar-Rafi‘ah fi Tabaqat ash-Shi‘ah, Sayyid ‘Ali Khan ash-Shirazi has allotted a certain part to the Shi‘ah among the Companions. He has first mentioned the members of the Banu Hashim and then the other Shi‘ah among the Companions. In the first section which is related to the Shi‘ah Companions among the members of the Banu Hashim, it is thus stated:
Abu Talib; ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; ‘Abd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas; Fadhl ibn al-‘Abbas; ‘Ubayd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas; Qithm ibn al-‘Abbas; ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn al-‘Abbas; Tamam ibn al-‘Abbas; ‘Aqil ibn Abi Talib; Abu Sufyan ibn Harith ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; Nawfal ibn Harith ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; ‘Abd Allah ibn Zubayr ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib;
‘Abd Allah ibn Ja‘far; ‘Awn ibn Ja‘far; Muhammad ibn Ja‘far; Rabi‘ah ibn Harith ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; Tufayl ibn Harith ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; Mughayrah ibn Nawfal ibn Harith ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; ‘Abbas ibn ‘Utbah ibn Abi Lahab; ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Rabi‘ah ibn Harith ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; and Ja‘far ibn Abi Sufyan ibn Harith ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib.[22][194]
In the second section (the non-Banu Hashim Shi‘ah among the Companions), Sayyid ‘Ali Khan has thus recorded:
‘Amr ibn Abi Salmah; Salman al-Farsi; Miqdad ibn Aswad; Abu Dharr al-Ghiffari; ‘Ammar ibn Yasir; Hudhayfah ibn Yaman; Khuzaymah ibn Thabit; Abu Ayyub al-Ansari; Abu’l-Haytham Malik ibn Tayyihan; Ubayy ibn Ka‘b; Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubadah; Qays ibn Sa‘d; Sa‘d ibn Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubadah; Abu Qutadah al-Ansari; ‘Udayy ibn Hatam; ‘Ubadah ibn Samit; Bilal ibn Rubah; Abu’l-Humara’; Abu Rafi‘; Hashim ibn ‘Utbah ibn Abi Waqqas;
‘Uthman ibn Hunayf; Sahl ibn Hunayf; Hakim ibn Jablah al-‘Adwi; Khalid ibn Sa‘id ibn al-‘As; Walid ibn Jabir ibn Talim at-Ta’i; Sa‘d ibn Malik ibn Sinan; Bara’ ibn Malik al-Ansari; Ibn Hasib Aslami; Ka‘b ibn ‘Amru al-Ansari; Rafa‘ah ibn Rafi‘ al-Ansari; Malik ibn Rabi‘ah Sa‘idi; ‘Uqbah ibn ‘Umar ibn Tha‘labah al-Ansari; Hind ibn Abi Halah at-Tamimi;
Ju‘dah ibn Hubayrah; Abu ‘Umrah al-Ansari; Mas‘ud ibn al-Aws; Nadhlah ibn ‘Ubayd; Abu Burzah Aslami; Mardas ibn Malik Aslami; Musur ibn Shidad Fahri; ‘Abd Allah ibn Budayl al-Khaza‘i; Hujr ibn ‘Adi al-Kindi; ‘Amru ibn al-Humq al-Khaza‘i; Usamah ibn Zayd; Abu Layla al-Ansari; Zayd ibn al-Arqam; and Bara ibn ‘Azib Awsi.[23][195]
The author of Rijal al-Burqa has also mentioned the Shi‘ah and supporters of ‘Ali (‘a) among the Companions of the Prophet (S) in a certain part of his book, thus:
Salman, Miqdad, Abu Dharr, and ‘Ammar, and after these four persons, Abu Layla, Shabir, Abu ‘Umrah al-Ansari, and Abu Sinan al-Ansari, and after these four persons, Jabir ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ansari; Abu Sa‘id al-Ansari whose name is Sa‘d ibn Malik al-Khazraji; Abu Ayyub al-Ansari al-Khazraji; Ubayy ibn Ka‘b al-Ansari;
Abu Burzah Aslami al-Khaza‘i whose name is Nadhlah ibn ‘Ubayd Allah; Zayd ibn al-Arqam al-Ansari; Buraydah ibn Hasib Aslami; ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn Qays whose epithet Safinah Rakib Asad; ‘Abd Allah ibn Salam; ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; ‘Abd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas; ‘Abd Allah ibn Ja‘far; Mughayrah ibn Nawfal ibn Harith ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; Hudhayfah al-Yaman who is included among the Ansar; Usamah ibn Zayd; Anas ibn Malik; Abu’l-Humra’; Bara’ ibn ‘Azib al-Ansari; and ‘Arafah Azdi.[24][196]
A number of the Shi‘ah ‘ulama’ and rijali scholars believes that the Shi‘ah among the Companions were more than this number. For example, Shaykh al-Mufid regards all the Companions who have pledged allegiance to ‘Ali (‘a) in Medina especially those Companions who accompanied him in the battles as among the Shi‘ah and those who believed in his Imamate {imamah}. In the Battle of Jamal (Camel), one thousand five hundred Companions were present.[25][197]
It is thus recorded in Rijal Kashi:
Among the pioneering Companions who traversed the path of truth and believed in the Imamate of the Commander of the Faithful ‘Ali (‘a) are the following: Abu’l-Haytham ibn Tayyihan; Abu Ayyub; Khuzaymah ibn Thabit; Jabir ibn ‘Abd Allah; Zayd ibn al-Arqam; Abu Sa‘id Sahl ibn Hunayf; Bara’ ibn Malik; ‘Uthman ibn Hunayf; ‘Ubadah ibn Samit, and after them are Qays ibn Sa‘d; ‘Udayy ibn Hatam; ‘Amru ibn Hamq; ‘Umran ibn Hasin; Buraydah Aslami; and others who are described as “basharun kathir” {many people}.[26][198]
In the marginal note of Rijal Kashi on the definition and explanation of the term “basarun kathir”, the late Mirdamad says: “It means many people from among the prominent Companions and leading Followers {tabi‘un}.”[27][199]
Sayyid Muhsin Amin has also said:
Be aware that many of the Companions believed in the Imamate of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) to count them is not possible for us to do and the narrators of traditions have consensus of opinion that most of the Companions accompanied and sided with the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) in the battles.[28][200]
In one of his letters to Mu‘awiyah, Muhammad ibn Abubakr identifies the presence of the Companions of the Prophet (S) at the side of ‘Ali (‘a) as one of the signs of his rightfulness.[29][201]
Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfah, a loyal supporter of ‘Ali (‘a) who was a maternal cousin of Mu‘awiyah, and owing to his friendship with ‘Ali (‘a), languished in the prison cell of Mu‘awiyah and finally died there, thus addressed Mu‘awiyah in one of their conversation:
From the moment I have known you, whether during the pre-Islamic period of ignorance {yawm al-jahiliyyah} or during the advent of Islam, you have never changed and Islam has not been added to you. And one of the manifestations of this fact is that you are condemning me for loving ‘Ali notwithstanding the fact that all the ascetics and devoted worshippers of the Muhajirun and Ansar are in his company while in your company are perverts and hypocrites.[30][202]
Of course, not all of those who were enlisted in the army of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) can be considered Shi‘ah. But since he (‘a) was the official caliph, they accompanied him (‘a). This statement can be said to be correct with respect to the other people, for the Companions who accompanied him (‘a) were always assisting the Imam (‘a) in proving his rightfulness. As Salim ibn al-Qays has narrated,
The Commander of the Faithful mounted the pulpit in Siffin and everyone including the Muhajirun and Ansar enlisted in the army gathered around the pulpit. The Imam praised and glorified Allah and then said: “O people! My virtues and merits are more than that which can be counted. It is enough to say that when the Messenger of Allah (S) was asked about the verse, “And the Foremost Ones are the foremost ones: they are the ones brought near {to Allah},”[31][203] he (S) said: ‘God has revealed this verse about the prophets and their successors {awsiya’}.
I am superior to all prophets and messengers and my successor {wasi} ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib is the foremost among the successors’.” At that moment, seventy persons from among the Companions who participated in the Battled of Badr, most of whom were from the Ansar, stood up and testified that they have heard the same thing from the Messenger of Allah (S).[32][204]
Summary
The pioneering Shi‘ah were prominent Companions of the Prophet (S). Muhammad Kird-‘Ali in Khatat ash-Sham has recorded that a number of the Companions were known as the “Shi‘ah of ‘Ali” during the lifetime of the Prophet (S).
Sayyid ‘Ali Khan ash-Shirazi in Ad-Darajat ar-Rafi‘ah fi Tabaqat ash-Shi‘ah has examined the Shi‘ah among the Companions in two sections: the Shi‘ah Companions from among the Banu Hashim, and the Shi‘ah Companions who were not members of the Banu Hashim.
The writer of Rijal al-Burqa has also allotted a certain part of his book to the supporters of ‘Ali (‘a) from among the Companions of the Prophet (S).
In Al-Jamal, Shaykh al-Mufid regards all the Companions who accompanied and sided with ‘Ali (‘a) in the battles as Shi‘ah.
In Rijal Kashi, after enumerating the Shi‘ah from among the Companions, Shaykh at-Tusi thus says: “A large number believed in the Imamate of ‘Ali (‘a).”
The supporters of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) also used to point out to Mu‘awiyah the presence of the Companions of the Prophet (‘a) on the side of ‘Ali (‘a) as one of the indications of his righteousness.
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The Periods of Historical Development of the Shi‘ah
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
1. The Shi‘ah during the Period of the First Four Caliphs
The Shi‘ah during the reigns of the first three caliphs, viz. Abubakr, Umar and ‘Uthman, has distinctive features which can be expressed in the following manner:
1. During the reigns of these three caliphs, the Shi‘ah were subjected to many pressures with the exception of the initial days after the event of Saqifah. It can even be said that many of the Shi‘ah were deprived of key positions on account of their being Shi‘ah.[33][205]
2. After the event of Saqifah which brought about dichotomy on the issue of leadership over the Muslims and led to the division of Muslims into two main groups, the Ahl as-Sunnah were referring to the caliphs of the time on the scientific, jurisprudential, ideological, and other problems, whereas the Shi‘ah were referring to ‘Ali (‘a).
The Shi‘ah’s practice of referring to ‘Ali (‘a) regarding scientific issues, jurisprudence and other Islamic sciences in general, continued with the pure Imams (‘a) after the martyrdom of ‘Ali (‘a).
The reason behind the Sunni-Shi‘ah difference in jurisprudence {fiqh}, hadith, tafsir {exegesis of the Qur’an}, kalam {scholastic theology}, among others is this very fact that the reference authorities of these two groups were different and distinct from each other.
3. Just as ‘Ali (‘a) had unofficial political and military cooperation from afar with the caliphs of the time as far as protection of the lofty interests of Islam was concerned,[34][206] a number of distinguished Shi‘ah among the Companions also assumed military and political positions with the consent of Imam ‘Ali (‘a). For example, Fadhl ibn al-‘Abbas—‘Ali’s (‘a) cousin and defender during the event in Saqifah—held a military position in the army of Sham and passed away in 18 AH in Palestine.[35][207]
Hudhayfah and Salman became the governors of Mada’in one after the other.[36][208] ‘Ammar ibn Yasir was appointed by the second caliph as the governor of Kufah after the tenure of Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas.[37][209]
Hashim Mirqal, who was one of the sincere Shi‘ah of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) and was martyred in the Battle of Siffin on the side of the Imam (‘a),[38][210] was one of the outstanding commanders during the periods of the three caliphs and conquered Azerbaijan in 22 AH.[39][211] ‘Uthman ibn Hunayf and Hudhayfah ibn Yaman were commissioned by ‘Umar to measure the lands of Iraq.[40][212]
‘Abd Allah ibn Badil ibn Waraqa’ al-Khaza‘i, one of the Commander of the Faithful’s (‘a) Shi‘ah whose son was one of the first martyrs in the Battle of Jamal (Camel),[41][213] was one of the military commanders and conquered Isfahan and Hamedan.[42][214]
Similarly, individuals such as Jarir ibn ‘Abd Allah Bajalli[43][215] and Qurzah ibn Ka‘b al-Ansari[44][216] who were among the Commander of the Faithful’s (‘a) distinguished men during his caliphate, held administrative and military positions during the periods of the three caliphs. Jarir conquered the territory of Kufah[45][217] and became the governor of Hamedan during ‘Uthman’s reign.[46][218] Qurzah ibn Ka‘b al-Ansari also conquered Shahr-e Rey during the period of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab.[47][219]
Manifestation of Shi‘ism during the Caliphate of ‘Ali (‘a)
Although the root of Shi‘ism can be traced back to the time of the Prophet (S), its manifestation came after ‘Uthman’s assassination and ‘Ali’s (‘a) caliphate. During this period the demarcating line became clear as ‘Ali’s (‘a) supporters and followers openly declared and expressed their Shi‘ism. Shaykh al-Mufid narrates, thus:
A group of people came to ‘Ali (‘a) and said: “O Commander of the Faithful! We are among your Shi‘ah.” The Imam (‘a) looked carefully at their faces and said: “But why can’t I see the countenances of the Shi‘ah in you?” They asked: “O Commander of the Faithful! How should countenances of the Shi‘ah be?”
He (‘a) said: “Their faces are pale from excessive acts of worship at night; their eyes are weak from weeping profusely; their backs have curvature for standing for long time in prayer; their stomachs can reach their backs for fasting a lot; and the dust of humility and lowliness has settled in them.”[48][220]
Also, poems were recited during the caliphate of Imam ‘Ali (‘a) in which ‘Ali (‘a) has been described as the rightful Imam and successor, and the leader after the Prophet (S). As Qays ibn Sa‘d was saying,
و عليّ إمامنا و إمام لسوانا أتى به التنـزيل
‘Ali is our Imam and that of others. The Qur’an has been revealed for this purpose.[49][221]
Khuzaymah ibn Thabit Dhu’sh-Shahadatayn used to say:
فديت عليّاً إمام الورى سراج البريّة مأوى التّقى
وصيّ الرّسول و زوج البتول إمام البريّة شمس الضّحى
تصدق خاتمه راكعاً فاحسن بفعل إمام الورى
ففضّله الله ربّ العباد و أنزل في شأنه هل أتى
May I be the ransom of ‘Ali! He is the Imam of the people, the light of creation and the asylum of the God-conscious ones.
He is the successor {wasi} of the Prophet, the husband of Batul (Fatimah), the Imam of creation, and radiant sun.
He is the Imam of creation and gave in alms {sadaqah} his ring while he was in the state of bowing {ruku‘}, and what a good deed he performed!
God, the Exalted, made him superior to others and revealed the Surah “Hal ata” about him.[50][222]
In some poems, the Imam’s (‘a) Shi‘ah also introduced themselves to the religion of ‘Ali (‘a). For example, while engaged in a fight against a person named ‘Amru ibn Yathribi from among the army of Jamal {camel} during the Battle of Jamal, ‘Ammar ibn Yasir recited thus:
لا تبرح العرصة يا ابن يثربي حتى اقاتلك علىٰ دين علي نحن و بيت الله اولى بالنّبي
O Ibn Yathribi! Leave not the battlefront so that we could fight against you over the religion of ‘Ali. I swear to the House of God that we are the foremost ones to the Prophet.[51][223]
Even the enemies and adversaries were using the same descriptions for the Shi‘ah. For example, in a poem, proud of killing the supporters of ‘Ali (‘a), ‘Amru ibn Yathribi says:
ان تنكروني فانا ابن يثربي قاتل عِلباء و هِند الجملى ثمّ ابن صوحان علىٰ دين عليّ
If you do not know me, I am Ibn Yathribi, the killer of ‘Ilba’ and Hind al-Jamali.[52][224] I am also the killer of Ibn Sawhan for the crime of following the religion of ‘Ali.
2. The Shi‘ah during the Period of the Umayyad Caliphate
The period of the Umayyad caliphate was the most difficult time for the Shi‘ah, starting from 40 AH up to 132 AH. All the Umayyad caliphs with the exception of ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz were sworn enemies of the Shi‘ah. Of course, after caliph Hisham the Umayyads were preoccupied with the campaign against internal revolts and the ‘Abbasid movement and the past harsh treatments of Shi‘ah were lessened.
The Umayyad caliphs were living in Sham, the capital of the Umayyad rule, and in most cases, the rulers adopted the policy of bloodshed with respect to the Shi‘ah-populated territories, exerted pressure on the Shi‘ah.
Among all the enemies, it was the Umayyad rulers who focused most on the Shi‘ah relentlessly annoying and disturbing them, with ‘Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad and Hajjaj ibn Yusuf being most notorious among them.
Ibn Abi’l-Hadid, the well-known scholar in the Sunni world, thus writes:
The Shi‘ah were being killed wherever they were. The Umayyads used to mutilate the hands and feet of individuals for being suspected as Shi‘ah. Anyone who was noted for his love and attachment to the family of the Prophet would either be imprisoned, his possessions be plundered, or his house be demolished. The pressure and restrictions imposed upon the Shi‘ah reached a point where the charge of friendship with ‘Ali (‘a) was considered as worse than the accusation of disbelief {kufr} and infidelity, entailing severer punishments.
In adopting this violent policy, living conditions for the people of Kufah was the worst because Kufah was the Shi‘ah capital of the time.
Mu‘awiyah designated Ziyad ibn Sumayyah as the ruler of Kufah and later on assigned the governorship of Basrah to him. Ziyad was once in the rank of the supporters of ‘Ali and he knew them all very well. He pursued the Shi‘ah and found them in whatever nook and corner they would hide. He killed them; threatened them; mutilated their hands and feet; blinded them; hung them on palm trees; and expelled them from Iraq so much so that not a single well-known Shi‘ah remained in Iraq.[53][225]
Abu’l-Faraj ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn ‘Ali ibn al-Jawzi has said:
When a number of the Shi‘ah protested against Ziyad, who was then delivering sermons from the pulpit, he ordered the mutilation of the hands and feet of eighty persons. He used to gather the people in the mosque and ask them to curse ‘Ali and if anyone refused to do so, Ziyad would order that his house be demolished.[54][226]
Ziyad, who ruled alternately for six months in Kufah and the next six months in Basrah, appointed Samurah ibn Jundab as his deputy in Basrah so that he could administer the city during his absence. During that period Samurah killed 8,000 people. Ziyad once asked him: “Are you not afraid that you might have killed one innocent person among them?” He replied: “Even if I have to kill two times that figure, I am not afraid of such a thing.”[55][227]
Abu Suwar ‘Adwi says: “One morning, Samurah {killed} 47 persons from among relatives, all of whom were memorizers of the Qur’an {hufaz}.”[56][228]
Mu‘awiyah, in a directive to his officials and workers, wrote that they should not accept the testimony of even one of ‘Ali’s (‘a) Shi‘ah or family members. In another directive, he thus wrote:
If two individuals would give testimony that a certain person is among the friends of ‘Ali and his family, his name should be erased from the record of the public treasury {bayt al-mal} and his salary and stipend should be cut off.[57][229]
After subjugating Mecca and Medina,Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, the bloodthirsty and cruel Umayyad agent, was appointed as the governor of Iraq, the center of the Shi‘ah gathering, in 75 AH by the Umayyad caliph ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. Having covered his head and face, Hajjaj entered the mosque of Kufah incognito. He passed by the line of people and mounted the pulpit.
He remained silent for a long moment. Murmuring among the people started as to who he is. One person said, “He is the new ruler.” The other one said, “Let us pelt him with stone.” Many others said, “No, let us listen to what he will say.” When the crowd silenced, he uncovered his face and uttering a few sentences, he terrified the people so much so that the small stones in the hands of those who were ready to pelt him fell on the ground spontaneously. At the beginning of his speech, he thus said:
O people of Kufah! It has been for many years that you have taken chaos, sedition {fitnah} and insubordination as your slogan. I can see heads similar to ripe fruits that must be separated from the body. I shall strike on your heads to such an extent that you would find the way to submission.[58][230]
Hajjaj implemented a rule of terror throughout Iraq and the eastern districts and unjustly killed many prominent figures of Kufah and pious people.
Mas‘udi thus writes about the crimes of Hajjaj:
Hajjaj ruled for twenty years and the number of those who were killed during this period by the swords of his headsmen or torturers exceeded 120,000 people. This figure does not include those who were killed by Hajjaj’s forces in the war against him.[59][231]
At the time of Hajjaj’s death, 50,000 men and 30,000 women were languishing in his infamous prison. Among them 11,000 were naked. Hajjaj used to imprison men and women in one cell. His prison cells were roofless. As such, the prisoners were not secure from the summer heat or the winter rain and cold.[60][232]
The Shi‘ah were usually victims of Hajjaj’s prison, torture, persecution, and murder. The best evidence that reflects the miserable plight of the Shi‘ah during the Umayyad period and the intensity of the Umayyad policy of strangulation is the complaint of the Shi‘ah to Imam as-Sajjad (‘a) about the oppression and tyranny perpetrated against them. The late Majlisi has narrates:
The Shi‘ah came to Imam Zayn al-‘Abidin (‘a) complaining about the pressure and strangulation, saying: “O son of the Messenger of Allah! We were expelled from our cities and eliminated by atrocious killing. They cursed the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) in the cities as well as in the mosque of the Messenger of Allah (S), on top of his pulpit.
No one prevented it and if any of us would protest, they would say, “This is a turabi (i.e. Shi‘ah); they would report it to the ruler, writing to him that so-and-so has said something good about Abu Turab (Imam ‘Ali (‘a)). The ruler would order them to beat that person, imprison him and finally kill him.”[61][233]
Summary
After the event of Saqifah, the Shi‘ah would refer to the pure Imams (‘a) with respect to scientific, jurisprudential and ideological issues. Although they were cooperating with the caliphs of the time in line with the interests of Islam, most of them were deprived of administrative positions.
During the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a), expression of Shi‘ism was one of the distinctive features of the Shi‘ah.
The period of the Umayyad rule was one of the most difficult times for the Shi‘ah. All the caliphs, with the exception of ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, were sworn enemies of the Shi‘ah, and the Shi‘ah-populated regions the bloodthirsty and cruel governors were ruling over.
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The Spread of Shi‘ism during the Period of Umayyad Caliphate
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
In spite of severe strangulation and oppression perpetrated against the Shi‘ah during the Umayyad rule, the spread of Shi‘ism continued unabated. The reason behind this was the state of oppression of the family of the Prophet (S) which prompted the people to incline emotionally toward them, causing new individuals to continuously embrace the creed of Shi‘ism.
This point was completely conspicuous during the end of the Umayyad rule. The spread of Shi‘ism during the Umayyad rule had several stages, each of which had its own salient features. The overall stages can be divided as follows:
a) From 40 AH to 61 AH (the period of Imam al-Hasan and Imam al-Husayn (‘a));
b) From 61 AH to approximately 110 AH (the period of Imam as-Sajjad and Imam al-Baqir (‘a)); and
c) From 110 AH to 132 AH, i.e. till the end of the Umayyad rule (the period of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a).
a) The Period of Imam al-Hasan and Imam al-Husayn (‘a)
From the time of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a), the Shi‘ah was gradually formed into a distinct group and the line of the Shi‘ah was obviously clear.
For this reason, in the peace treaty with Mu‘awiyah, Imam al-Hasan (‘a) stipulated the guarantee of the Shi‘ah of his father’s safety as one of the articles of the peace treaty, and nobody should protest against them.[62][234] The Shi‘ah gradually trained themselves to accept that obedience to the Imam does not depend on the Imam’s actual grip on power. As such, when the people were pledging allegiance to Imam al-Hasan (‘a), he made it a condition for them to obey him both in war and in peace.
In the same manner, it was made clear that Imamate {imamah} is not necessarily equal to governance and that a tyrant ruler such as Mu‘awiyah cannot be the Imam, obedience to whom is obligatory. For example, in the sermon that he delivered in the mosque of Kufah after the peace treaty at the insistence and in the presence of Mu‘awiyah, Imam al-Hasan (‘a) said:
The caliph is he who practices the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet (S), and he who is practicing injustice cannot be the caliph. He is rather a king who controls a kingdom. He shall enjoy for a short period and after that, his joy shall be curtailed and he must be called to account.[63][235]
Among the salient features of the Shi‘ah’s society at this stage is the unity and solidarity among them, which resulted from the status of the Shi‘ah leaders. Until Imam al-Husayn’s (‘a) martyrdom, we cannot see of any split among the Shi‘ah. Imams al-Hasan and al-Husayn (‘a) had a certain status in the sight of Muslims which none of the pure Imams (‘a) after them ever attained.
They were the well-established progeny of the Prophet (S). During the Battle of Siffin, when he saw that Imam al-Hasan (‘a) was enthusistically rushing toward the battlefront, the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) said:
“Hold back this young man on my behalf, lest he causes my ruin, because I am unwilling to send these two (al-Hasan and al-Husayn) toward death, lest the descending line of the Prophet (S) is cut away by their death.”[64][236]
Imams al-Hasan and al-Husayn (‘a) also occupied a position of respect among the Companions of the Prophet (S). This fact was demonstrated in the people’s pledge of allegiance to Imam al-Hasan (‘a) in which the Companions of the Prophet (S) accepted his caliphate and none protested. As such, during Imam al-Hasan’s (‘a) caliphate we cannot see any problem (in terms of his legitimacy being challenged) except from Sham.
When the Imam (‘a) concluded a peace treaty and wanted to leave Kufah to return to Medina, the people wept profusely. In Medina also, his position is clear from a Qurayshi’s report to Mu‘awiyah. In his report to Mu‘awiyah, a Qurayshi man thus wrote:
O Commander of the Faithful! Hasan performs his dawn prayer in the mosque and he remains in the state of prostration till the sun rises. Then, he inclines to one of the mosque’s pillars and anyone who is in the mosque can benefit from his services and talks to him until the rising of the sun {at noon}. He performs a two-rak‘ah prayer, stands up, goes out, asks about the condition of the wives of the Prophet (S), and then returns to his house.[65][237]
Imam al-Husayn (‘a), like his distinguished brother, occupied a highly respectable position such that even ‘Abd Allah ibn Zubayr, a staunch enemy of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a), could not deny the station of Imam Husayn (‘a). While the Imam (‘a) was still in Mecca, the people were not paying attention to Zubayr halting the progress of his campaign. Thus, he wanted the Imam (‘a) to leave Mecca as soon as possible. He said to Imam al-Husayn (‘a), hence: “If I had the same position you have in Iraq, I would have hastened to go there.”[66][238]
The station of the Imam (‘a) was such that his refusal to pay allegiance to the caliph rendered the government of Yazid to be questioned. It was for this reason that the ruling authority insisted on him giving his pledge.
These two persons were held in such high esteem and respect among the Banu Hashim that not only could none from Banu Hashim have a leadership claim during their lifetime, but also none could even claim to be the chief of the Banu Hashim. When Imam al-Hasan (‘a) passed away on the account of the effect of poison given by Mu‘awiyah, ‘Abd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas was then in Sham. Mu‘awiyah said to him: “Ibn al-‘Abbas, Hasan died and you became the chief of the Banu Hashim.” Ibn al-‘Abbas said: “So long as Husayn is there, I am not.”[67][239]
Even Ibn al-‘Abbas, in spite of his intellectual and political position, being a reporter of hadith and exegete of the Qur’an and, according to the Sunnis, even higher in rank than Imams al-Hasan and al-Husayn (‘a), was offering services to them. It is thus narrated in the document of Ibn Abi Ziyad:
Ibn al-‘Abbas prepared the riding horses of Hasan and Husayn, keeping the stirrup until they rode. I said: “Why are you keeping stirrup for them even though you are older than them?” He said: “You fool! Don’t you know who they are? They are the sons of the Messenger of Allah. Is it not a great honor that God has granted me the opportunity to keep the stirrup for them?”[68][240]
The Impact of the Karbala’ Movement on the Spread of Shi‘ism
After Imam al-Husayn’s (‘a) martyrdom the Shi‘ah, owing to the loss of one of their key supporters, were extremely frightened losing hope in an armed confrontation with the enemy. With the occurrence of the heart-rending event of ‘Ashura’ the Shi‘ah movement received a devastating blow within a very short period of time.
As the news of this event spread within the Muslim lands, especially in Iraq and Hijaz, intense fear prevailed in the Shi‘ah communities. This was because it became increasingly clear that Yazid is determined to stabilize his rule even to the extent of killing the son of the Prophet (S), taking as captives his women and children, and that he would not refrain from any crime in order to strengthen the pillars of his government.
The effect of this intense apprehension was most obvious in Kufah and Medina, and it multiplied with the Hirrah tragedy and the intense and merciless crackdown of the popular ‘Medina movement’ by Yazid’s forces. Severe strangulation in the Shi‘ah-populated territories of Iraq and Hijaz especially in Kufah and Medina, was rampant shattering the Shi‘ah cohesion and formation.
In describing this sorrowful condition, Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) says: “After the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (‘a), the people dispersed from around the family of the Prophet (S) except three persons, viz. Abu Khalid Kabuli, Yahya ibn Umm at-Tawil and Jabir ibn Mut‘am.”[69][241]
In describing this period, Mas‘udi the historian also says: “‘Ali ibn al-Husayn assumed the Imamate secretly with utmost dissimulation {taqiyyah} at a difficult time.”[70][242]
This state of affairs persisted till the end of Yazid’s rule. After Yazid’s death, the Shi‘ah movements started and continued till the stabilization of the Umayyad rule during the caliphate of ‘Abd al-Malik. This period was a good opportunity for the spread of Shi‘ism.
One of the important impacts of the Karbala’ movement was the delegitimization of the Umayyad rule in the public opinion. The infamy of the government reached a point where the position of caliphate was in its lowest degree and the people were no longer viewing it as a sacred institution.
The poem below addressed to Yazid’s grave in Hawarin expresses this infamy:
أيّها القبر بحوارينا قد ضمنت شر النّاس أجمعينا
O grave that is in the city of Hawarin! The worst of people is inside you.[71][243]
At that time, with the exception of the people of Sham, the Muslims—both Sunnis and Shi‘ah—were opposing the Umayyad caliphate and Sunni and Shi‘ah revolts were frequently happening.[72][244] Ya‘qubi thus writes:
‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan wrote to his governor Hajjaj ibn Yusuf: “Do not afflict us with the shedding of the blood of the progeny of Al Abi Talib because we saw what fate the Sufyanis (descendants of Abu Sufyan) met as the result of their killing.”[73][245]
Finally, the blood of Imam al-Husayn (‘a) demolished the palace of the Umayyads. Muqaddasi says: “As God saw the oppression and injustice of the Umayyads against the family of the Prophet (S), He gathered an army from the different parts of that Khurasan and sent it to them at the darkness of the night.”[74][246]
Meanwhile, the state of oppression of Imam al-Husayn (‘a) and the martyrs in Karbala’ expressed the love for the progeny of the Prophet (S) in the hearts of the people and strengthened their position as the descendants of the Prophet (S) and the true protectors of Islam.
Most of the uprisings during the Umayyad period took place in the name and for the sake of avenging their blood, and revolutions used to be formed under the slogan, “Ya litharat al-Husayn” {O helpers of Husayn!}. Even the uprising of a person like Ibn Ash‘ath in Sistan[75][247] was formed under the name of Hasan al-Muthanna (son of Imam al-Hasan (‘a)).[76][248]
For this reason, the hadiths regarding Imam al-Mahdi (‘a) as the avenger {muntaqam} of the progeny of Muhammad (S) gained prominence.[77][249] The people were waiting for the avengers against the Umayyads[78][250] and due to impatience and the peak of waiting, they would sometimes conform the name “Mahdi” to the name of leaders of the movements and uprisings.[79][251]
In the meantime, the pure Imams (‘a) and the progeny of the Prophet (S) kept on reviving the memory and reminiscence of the martyrs of Karbala’. Whenever he desired to drink water, Imam as-Sajjad (‘a) would shed tears profusely when he set his sight on the water. When he was asked about the reason behind this reaction, he (‘a) said:
“How could I not cry when the water was set free for the wild animals and beasts of prey of the deserts, but it was denied to my father?” One day, a servant of the Imam (‘a) said: “Is there no end for your agony?”
The Imam (‘a) said: “Woe unto you! Ya‘qub, who on account of the disappearance of only one of his twelve sons, so cried a lot during their separation that his eyes turned blind and on account of his agony his back bent. This is while his son was alive. But I was an eyewitness to the killing of my father, brothers, uncles and 18 persons from among my relatives whose corpses were scattered on the ground. So, how could it be possible for my agony and anguish to end?”[80][252]
Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) was encouraging the poets to recite poetry as elegy to Imam al-Husayn (‘a), saying: “Whoever would keep on reciting poem about al-Husayn (‘a) and prompt the people to cry, paradise shall be incumbent upon him and his sins shall be forgiven.”[81][253]
In this way, Imam al-Husayn (‘a) became the symbol of Shi‘ism. As such, in many stages of history such as the period of caliph Mutawakkil visitation {ziyarah} to the grave of the Imam (‘a) was forbidden.[82][254]
Summary
From the time of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a), the Shi‘ah gradually formed into a particular group and party, and the rank of the Shi‘ah became completely distinct. Meanwhile, on account of the station of Imams al-Hasan and al-Husayn (‘a), the Shi‘ah of the time enjoyed unity and solidarity and no split was yet observed.
After the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (‘a), the Shi‘ah lost their key support and experienced intense fear and apprehension. Only a small number remained beside Imam as-Sajjad, but after the death of Yazid, this state of affairs changed. The movement of Karbala’ removed the legitimacy of the Umayyad rule and dragged the position of caliphate from its sanctity to its lowest ebb. In the meantime, the love for the progeny of the progeny of the Prophet (S) was manifested in the hearts of the people.