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Abdul Soumphonphakdy
Turkey,[a] officially the Republic of Trkiye,[b] is a country mainly in Anatolia in West Asia, with a smaller part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east; Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean Sea (and Cyprus) to the south; and the Aegean Sea, Greece, and Bulgaria to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people; most are ethnic Turks, while ethnic Kurds are the largest ethnic minority.[4] Officially a secular state, Turkey has a Muslim-majority population. Ankara is Turkey's capital and second-largest city. Istanbul is its largest city, and its economic and financial center, as well as the largest city in Europe. Other major cities include İzmir, Bursa and Antalya.
Human habitation began in the Late Paleolithic.[11] Home to important Neolithic sites like Gbekli Tepe and some of the earliest farming areas, present-day Turkey was inhabited by various ancient peoples.[12][13][14] Hattians were assimilated by the Anatolian peoples.[15][16] Classical Anatolia transitioned into cultural Hellenization following the conquests of Alexander the Great;[17][18] Hellenization continued during the Roman and Byzantine eras.[19][20] The Seljuk Turks began migrating into Anatolia in the 11th century, starting the Turkification process.[20][21] The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into Turkish principalities.[22] Beginning in 1299, the Ottomans united the principalities and expanded; Mehmed II conquered Istanbul in 1453. During the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire became a global power.[23][24] From 1789 onwards, the empire saw major transformation, reforms, and centralization while its territory declined.[25][26]
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in large-scale loss of life and mass migration into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, and Crimea.[27] Under the control of the Three Pashas, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in 1914, during which the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Greek and Assyrian subjects.[28][29][30] Following Ottoman defeat, the Turkish War of Independence resulted in the abolition of the sultanate and the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne. The Republic was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, modelled on the reforms initiated by the country's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatrk. Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II,[31] but was involved in the Korean War. Coups in 1960 and 1980 interrupted the transition to a multi-party system.[32]
Turkey is an upper-middle-income and emerging country; its economy is the world's 18th-largest by nominal and 11th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP. It is a unitary presidential republic. Turkey is a founding member of the OECD, G20, and Organization of Turkic States. With a geopolitically significant location, Turkey is a regional power[33] and an early member of NATO. An EU-candidate, Turkey is part of the EU Customs Union, CoE, OIC, and TURKSOY.
Turkey has coastal plains, a high central plateau, and various mountain ranges; its climate is temperate with harsher conditions in the interior.[34] Home to three biodiversity hotspots,[35] Turkey is prone to frequent earthquakes and is highly vulnerable to climate change.[36][37] Turkey has universal healthcare, growing access to education,[38] and increasing innovativeness.[39] It is a leading TV content exporter.[40] With 21 UNESCO World Heritage sites, 30 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions,[41] and a rich and diverse cuisine,[42] Turkey is the fourth most visited country in the world.
With the Treaty of Alexandropol, the name Trkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the expression Devlet-i liyye-i Trkiyye ('Sublime Turkish State') was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.[52]
In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan issued a circular, calling for exports to be labeled "Made in Trkiye".[53] The circular also stated that in relation to other governmental communications, the "necessary sensitivity will be shown on the use of the phrase 'Trkiye' instead of phrases such as 'Turkey' (in English)".[53][54] The reason given was that Trkiye "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".[53] In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the United Nations and other international organizations to use Trkiye officially in English, which the UN immediately agreed to do.[55][56][57]
Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by modern humans since the late Paleolithic period and contains some of the world's oldest Neolithic sites.[59][60] Gbekli Tepe is close to 12,000 years old.[59] Parts of Anatolia include the Fertile Crescent, an origin of agriculture.[61] Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in Iran and Jordan Valley, and spread farming into Europe.[62] Other important Neolithic sites include atalhyk and Alaca Hyk.[63] Troy's earliest layers go back to the Chalcolithic.[63] It is not known if the Trojan war is based on historical events.[64] Troy's Late Bronze Age layers matches most with Iliad's story.[65]
Anatolia's historical records start with clay tablets from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day Kltepe.[66] These tablets belonged to an Assyrian trade colony.[66] The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic.[67] Hattian was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections.[68] Hurrian language was used in northern Syria.[67] Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic languages were in the Anatolian sub-group of Indo-European languages,[69] with Hittite being the "oldest attested Indo-European language".[70] The origin of Indo-European languages is unknown.[71] They may be native to Anatolia[72] or non-native.[73]
Hattian rulers were gradually replaced by Hittite rulers.[66] The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of Hattusa.[66] It co-existed in Anatolia with Palaians and Luwians, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.[66] As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.[74]
Around 750 BC, Phrygia had been established, with its two centers in Gordium and modern-day Kayseri.[75] Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, but it was closer to Greek, rather than Anatolian languages.[69] Phrygians shared Anatolia with Neo-Hittites and Urartu. Urartu's capital was around Lake Van.[75] Urartu was often in conflict with Assyria,[76] but fell with the attacks of Medes and Scythians in seventh century BC.[75] When Cimmerians attacked, Phrygia fell around 650 BC.[77] They were replaced by Carians, Lycians and Lydians.[77] These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".[77]
Cyrus attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and Achaemenid Empire eventually expanded into western Anatolia.[77] In the east, the Armenian province was part of the Achaemenid Empire.[75] Following the Greco-Persian Wars, the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire.[77] In northwestern Turkey, Odrysian kingdom existed in 5th century BC.[87] Two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, were located in Anatolia.[88]
Following the victories of Alexander in 334 BC and 333 BC, the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the Macedonian Empire.[77] This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization of the Anatolian interior,[14] which met resistance in some places.[17] Following Alexander's death, the Seleucids ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, the kingdom of Armenia appeared. In third century BC, Celts invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as the Galatians.[89]
When Pergamon requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, Rome intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as province of Asia. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards.[90] Following Asiatic Vespers massacre, and Mithridatic Wars with Pontus, Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC, Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia, while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites.[91] Severalconflicts with Parthians ensued, with peace and wars alternating.[92]
According to Acts of the Apostles, early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of St Paul's efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the oldest Christianliterature.[93] According to extrabiblical traditions, the Assumption of Mary took place in Ephesus, where Apostle John was also present. Irenaeus writes of "the church of Ephesus, founded by Paul, with John continuing with them until the times of Trajan."[94]
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world. The term Byzantine Empire was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as Romans. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire.[citation needed]
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