Organizational Behavior Stephen P Robbins Ppt Chapter 3
Elia Khensamphanh
It is important to remember that OB deals with 3 levels of behaviors: individuals, groups and structures. Knowledge about those 3 types of behaviors is necessary to apply actions which make the whole organization function successfully.
OB concepts, however law-like they can be, must take into account situational factors. Under different conditions different individuals act differently. That is why there only a few absolutes in OB. Because people are different and complex, one needs to consider OB in a contingency framework.
Those reinforcements can happen on continuous or intermittent basis. Desired behavior is reinforced each time continuous reinforcement is performed. Intermittent reinforcement occurs when reinforcement is not regular, but it happens enough often to make one behave in a desired way repeatedly.
We are talking about fixed-interval schedule when reinforcement is applied after a particular period of time (e.g. salaries). When reinforcement happens on irregular time basis we are referring to fixed-interval schedule (e.g. class tests in high schools, money bonuses). Fixed-ration schedule tells us that reinforcement happens always after a certain and constant amount of desired behaviors is performed (e.g. pupil is not praised each time he gets A, but he is praised after he gets 10 As, and then 20 As,and so on). Variable-ratio schedule is the opposite. One is rewarded on unpredictable basis; each time after different amount of desired behaviors occurs. In general, variable schedules are more effective than fixed.
Core-self evaluation -> level to which one likes or dislikes himself, whether he thinks he is effective, able to perform tasks and have control over his surrounding. People with positive core-self evaluation usually perform at work better.
Proactive personality -> taking initiatives, being ahead with ideas, recognition of opportunities. Proactive people are seen as leaders, make changes within the organization, but they are more likely to leave the organization to start business on their-own.
The most basic categorisation of values recognises terminal and instrumental values and is used in Rokech Value Survey (RVS). RVS is made of two sets of values: terminal values are desirable goals and instrumental values that represent behaviors/modes which help to achieve the terminal values (terminal goals). People in the similar occupations have similar RVS values.
Nexters -> on the work market since 2000; people to whom financial success is important, they are technology-oriented at work, confident, value both self and relationships, team spirit combined with work autonomy.
Critique: out-of-date (concept developed 30 years ago, based on IBM company), many changes, world events have happened since the development of the theory (and they also shape the dimensions), some results are surprising.
Moreover, when we judge behaviors of others, we often make fundamental attribution error. It is a tendency to underestimate the external environment (situational circumstances) and overestimate internal factors (e.g. blame the person, his personality).
Bounded rationality -> based on the idea that people simplify problems to be able to deal with them, we take out multifaceted aspects of the problem and thus reduce complexity. Only find the first acceptable solution, but not the optimal one.
Intuitive decision making -> relaying on intuition when making a decision, takes place on unconscious level. It would be effective to complement this with evidence and good judgements in decision making.
Creativity can be described as ability to generate new, innovative, useful and resourceful ideas. It is becoming more important in decision-making process. Allows to see more perspectives and angles of a problem. Most of us need to learn to unleash our creative potential
One defines motivation as a reason for engaging in a particular behavior towards attaining a goal. It relates to 3 key concepts: direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior. Intensity=how much one tries, direction= it leads to the desired outcome, persistence=how long one tries.
It focuses on 3 needs: need for achievement (nAch), need for power (nPow) and need for affiliation (nAff). These needs are subconscious. Researches focus mainly on nAch and the relationship between nAch and job performance. Critique: the theory has less practical approach than others and applying and measuring concept in practice is expensive and time-consuming.
Theory which addresses the effects of social contexts on intrinsic motivation. It states that if we think we will be able to complete the task, we will be intrinsically motivated to complete the task, requiring no further external motivation. And if we are extrinsically awarded for behavior which was previously intrinsically rewarding, then the general motivation level drops. Examples of extrinsic rewards: bonus, salary, verbal praise. Why does it happen?
This theory claims that providing specific, challenging and interesting goals, while giving constant feedback, results in better outcome. Acceptance of a goal, however hard it can be to achieve, results in higher effort to achieve it.
4. Difficult goal equals invention, finding new working methods to be more effective and efficient. In this whole process, feedback serves as guidance, check list of things that are done and need to be done.
This theory argues that employees compare their efforts and their outcomes with those of other employees, in case of inequities they act. There are four ways one can compare his inputs and outputs with those of co- worker: self-inside, self-outside, other-inside, other-outside. The moderating variables of comparison are gender, length of tenure, level in the organization and amount of education/professionalism. Same gender prefers references from the same gender. If one spots inequity, he can make the following decisions:
Developed by Victor Vroom. Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. Focuses on 3 relationships:
MPS = ((skill variety + task identity + task significance)/3) x autonomy x feedback Motivating jobs needs to high at least on one of the three dimensions that create meaningfulness and on both autonomy and feedback. However, it is better to add the above characteristics to improve motivation, rather than using this complex model.
Job rotation (employee is performing different tasks at different times, tasks shift, employee moves from one job to another which requires the same skills level). Reduce boredom, increase motivation, increase flexibility as employees have more skills. But it increases training costs, creates disruptions, reduce productivity.
Job enlargement (employee is performing more different and various tasks, his work is becoming more diverse and it horizontally widened) The application of job enlargement is not always successful, as employees may dislike the job even more.
What to pay? Pay structure -> process of establishing pay level to balance internal and external equity. Pay more: better qualified, motivated and longer loyalty, but leads to very high cost.
Skill-based pay - employees are paid on the basis of the number of job skills they have or have acquired or number of jobs they can perform. Limitation: the organization may pay the employees for acquiring skills which are not immediately needed.
Profit-sharing plan - various incentive plans introduced by businesses that provide direct (cash) or indirect (stock) payments to employees that depend on company's profitability in addition to employees' regular salary and bonuses
What benefits to offer? Flexible benefits enable employers to select the benefits that suit them. There are also 3 main types of benefits plan: modular plans, core-plus plans and flexible spending plans.
Financial motivators (pay plans, wage) are effective in short-term, while intrinsic rewards are crucial motivator in long-term. Intrinsic rewards can be just informal thank you as well as the whole formally developed program. Intrinsic rewards plans are inexpensive but are vulnerable to politics of management.
Are more intense and have a contextual stimulus (they are caused by a person, situation, action, event); they usually last for seconds/minutes. Emotions: most of researches have agreed that there are 6 basic emotions: happiness-surprise-fear-sadness-anger-disgust.
Are less intense and lack situational stimulus. Are usually not felt towards people and last longer than emotions. Moods are more cognitive while emotions are more behavioral (can lead us to action). Moods and emotions can influence each other. Emotion, if it is deep and lasting, and turn into mood.
Moods can be of negative or positive affect. Positive affect is a set of moods consisting of positive emotions, we distinguish high positive emotions: excitement, self-assurance, cheerfulness and low positive emotions: boredom, sluggishness and tiredness. Negative affect is a set of moods consisting of negative emotions, we distinguish high negative emotions: nervousness, stress and anxiety and low negative emotions: relaxation, tranquility and poise. Moreover, exists something like positivity offset what means that most of people experience slightly positive mood when nothing special is happening.
Emotional labour is form of emotional regulation in which workers are expected to display certain emotions as part of their job, and to promote organizational goals. The intended effects of these emotional displays are on other, targeted people, who can be clients, customers, subordinates or co-workers. What happens sometimes is emotional dissonance (showing one emotion while experiencing another), it is often a difference between felt emotion and displayed emotion (displayed emotions/regulations are organisationally required and claimed as appropriate in a particular job).
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