Tanner Tools V14.1 64.bit 26
Hilma Klingaman
Leather is a manufactured product. It is produced by the tanner from the skins or hides of animals, reptiles, fishes and birds, and leather made from human skins is not unknown. The process by which skins are converted to leather is broadly covered by the term "tanning, " although tanning proper is only one of the operations necessary to produce finished leather. The object of tanning is to preserve the pelt against putrification through chemical processes and, at the same time, to preserve the natural fibrous structure from which ultimate strength and pliability are derived. This was originally attained by the use of natural substances, but manufactured chemicals are now increasingly employed for this purpose.
By the eleventh century the tanner's art had been reduced to well-established techniques, but the chemical principles involved were not defined until the nineteenth century. Until the latter part of the nineteenth century, the methods of producing leather were substantially those of the preceding two thousand years.
Leather played an important part in many early machines and it was essential for everyday life. In 1812 Tench Coxe wrote: "The uses of leather are of the utmost importance to health, the facilitation of industry, the diffusion of knowledge, and the military operations of the United States by land and sea." Coxe's list of the uses of leather contained only "ready necessaries or plain conveniences." Of these he named "shoes, boots and slippers, saddles and Briddles, harness, carriages (many of which have leather bootes, tops, curtains, and aprons), drums, gloves, leaterhn breeches, rigging and other hides for ships and vessels, bound books, manufactured cards and carding machines, military equipments, and other leather goods."1
In addition, Coxe noted that the tanner's essential place in society was strengthened by the fact that "the manufacture of hides and skins are of great importance to agriculture." For example, "bark, abundant everywhere, is redundant in new settlements, where the tanning facilitates the destruction of the forests, which obstruct agriculture."2
The craftsmen whom the Virginia Company planned to send to the New World included at first no tanners, curriers, or shoemakers. The Company probably intended to supply the settlers with shoes as well as every other form of clothing. The author of Nova Britannia mentioned no leather workers in his list of artificers whose services would be needed in the colony1 . This may indicate that he was anxious to advance the interests of the colony, and was careful not to present it as a possible rival to any branch of English trade and manufactures. Possibly he wished to make Virginia appear in a favorable light to the English by showing that an increase in colonial population would provide a larger market for English manufactured goods which was one of the purposes of founding the colony. In a broadside issued by the Virginia Company in 1611, however, tanners and shoemakers were among those to whom inducements to emigrate were offered. The need for such craftsmen in Virginia may have resulted from the failure of the Company to provide the colony with supplies. In addition, by 1611 the increasing number of 6cattle in the colony as well as vast numbers of deer provided the settlers with a plentiful supply of raw hides2. The inducements offered by the Virginia Company apparently were effective, for it is known that tanners and shoemakers followed their trades in Virginia in 1616.3 In 1620 tanners, shoemakers, and leather dressers were among the tradesmen the Virginia Company again attempted to persuade to settle4in the colony .
Among the other causes that induced craftsmen to abandon their trades was the scarcity of money and towns in the colony. Governor Harvey complained in 1636 that craftsmen could not be paid because of the lack of money.11 Henry Hartwell, James Blair, and Edward Chilton reported to the Board of Trade in 1698: For want of Towns, Markets, and Money, there is but little Encouragement for Tradesmen and Artificers, and therefore little Choice of them, and their Labour very dear in the Country. A Tradesman having no Opportunity of a Market where he can buy Meat, Milk, Corn, and all other things, must either make Corn, Keep Cows, and raise Stocks himself, or must ride about the Country to buy Meat and Corn where he can find it, then is puzzeled to find 8Carriers, Drovers, Butchers, Salting, (for he can't buy one Joynt or two) and a great many other Things, which there would be no Occasion for, if there were Town and Markets. Then a great deal of the Tradesmen's Time being necessarily spent in going and coming to and from his Work, in dispers'd Country Plantations, and his Pay being generally in straggling Parcels of Tobacco, the Collection whereof costs about 10 per Cent. and the best of this Pay coming but once a Year, so that he cannot turn his hand frequently with a small Stock, as Tradesmen do in England and elsewhere, all this occasions the Dearth of all Tradesmen's Labour, and likewise the Discouragement, Scarcity, and Insufficiency of Tradesmen.12
The legislature repeatedly attempted to establish towns where it believed craftsmen and tradesmen would settle. Anthony Langston remarked in 1663: "Towns & Corporations stored with Trades and Manufactures is the onely defect we have to make us the most florishing and profitable Plantation his Majesty hath."13 As early as 1636 Richard Kemp, Secretary of Virginia, suggested that all ships should unload and load at certain places where he thought towns would soon arise and where craftsmen would settle.14
The last act was strengthened by another act passed during the next session of the Assembly in December 1662: Whereas the act restrayning exportation of hides lays the penalty only upon the buyers, and therefore produced not the effect that was intended thereby which was the supply of the country with leather, Be it therefore enacted that whosoever shall sell or otherwise dispose of any hides contrary to the intent of the former act shal be fined for every hide soe by him sold or otherwise disposed of to be exported one thousand pounds of tobacco; and it is granted by this act that sale may be made of hides to any person liveing in the country, the clause in a former act comanding them to be sold in the county to the contrary notwithstanding. 18
The following year, Edmund Scarborough, planter, industrialist, and member of the House of Burgesses from Accomack county, proposed that deer skins and calf skins should be added to the list of hides not to be exported.19 This was accordingly done, because the Assembly considered them "useful and beneficial to the Country as hides, for promoteing the manufacture of shoes." At the same time the 10Assembly placed a still heavier penalty on anyone who exported "shooes, hides, or leather."20
In 1680 the Virginia government made another 11attempt to prohibit the exportation of hides and deer skins and a more sweeping act was passed two years later which included, besides hides and skins, woolfells and iron.22 This law provided heavy penalties for anyone engaged in the exportation of "any iron, wool, wool fells, skins and hides, or any manner of leather, tanned or untanned of any deer, oxen, bull, cow or calf." The justices of the peace in the various counties were given the responsibility of enforcing the law and "every collector in this country shall at the entry of every ship or vessel acquaint the master of such vessell or ship with this act, and enter a perticular clause in the condition of their entry bond for the performance of the same."
The Commissioners of the Customs in England had other ideas. They reported to the Lords of Trade that the Staple Act of 1663 was designed to make England the source of supply for the colonies and the Virginia act of 1682 not only violated the intention of the Staple Act but injured the customs and trade of England as well. The Lords of Trade confirmed the report and instructed Lord Howard of Effingham, Governor of Virginia, to have the Virginia act repealed, which was accordingly done.23 As such laws had proven practically useless, this action was of little 12importance, but it marked a distinct step in English policy. Attempts to divert the colony from tobacco culture were hereafter abandoned by the Mother Country. The most influential factor in inducing the change in the government's attitude was the large revenue derived from the customs on tobacco, which was greatly increased by an additional duty imposed in 1685.
The Virginia Assembly passed a law in 1691 entitled "An Act declareing the dutie of Tanners, Curryers, and Shoemakers,"25 which was apparently intended to regulate the leather industry by placing tanners, curriers, and shoemakers13under careful restrictions in following their callings and in no way was it intended to represent governmental encouragement of the industry. The legislature probably hoped that if better leather were produced in Virginia, the inhabitants would be less dependent on England for leather articles. During periods of low tobacco prices, Virginians were often unable to buy English commodities and without some local supplies of leather products, they would find themselves short of many necessary articles, such as shoes, saddles, and harness. During these times, and they were frequent, the colonists turned to locally manufactured products.26
The primary purpose of the act, however, may have been to eliminate those tanners, curriers, and shoemakers whose work was of poor quality, and thereby to reduce the quantity of leather articles produced. The act indicates that leather and leather products were being manufactured in Virginia of an inferior quality. Poor workmanship usually results from lack of skill and knowledge, or from lack of time to do the work thoroughly, or perhaps from both deficiencies. It is not surprising that much care less work resulted from inadequate and often unskilled labor, especially when there was an abundant supply of materials. It is significant that in restrictions imposed upon tanners, 14curriers, and shoemakers by the act, the element of time plays an important part. For instance, no leather was to be over-limed nor was leather to be put into the tan vats until the lime had been thoroughly soaked out of it. The currier was not permitted to "curry any hyde or skin being not thoroughly dry" and he was to use "good stuff, nor with less of that, than the leather will receive." He was also warned not to use salt in preparing leather. The shoemaker was cautioned to use only thread that was sound, twisted, and waxed and rosined, and the stitches were to be drawn with the utmost care.
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