Taurus Movie 2022

[Marine Farinha]

Sandtiger sharks are large, slow-moving, coastal sharks that have a flattened, conical snout. They are light brown on the dorsal surface with some scattered dark spots, and light colored ventrally. They have broad triangular fins and a distinct caudal fin that is asymmetrical (heterocercal) in shape, with an enlarged upper lobe. Sand tigers prefer hunting fish and invertebrates inshore near reefs, surf, and shallow bays, and migrate north-south with the seasonal temperature changes. They produce two pups, one from each uterus, every other year (Compagno et al., 2005).

Fun Fact: Sand tiger embryos exhibit intrauterine cannibalism (adelphophagy). The largest or most developed embryo in each uterus eats the remaining eggs and less developed embryos (Pollard and Smith, 2009). See video on YouTube

Sand tigers are fished both commercially and recreationally throughout their range with variable importance regionally. In the North Pacific, northern Indian Ocean and off the tropical west coast of Africa, the sand tiger is part of the commercial fishery as a food fish. The meat is consumed, fresh, frozen and dried-salted. Fins are sold in oriental markets for shark fin soup and jaws and teeth are used for trophies and ornaments. In North American waters, the sand tiger was historically a part of the commercial fishery but received full protection under the Atlantic Fishery Management Plan in 1997. In Australia the sand tiger received protection in New South Wales in 1984 and in Queensland in 1997.

Sand tigers survive well in public aquaria and are a favorite because of their large size and fierce appearance. This species is common in coastal waters and can often be found around shipwrecks (Pollard and Smith, 2009).

While these animals are not aggressive unless provoked, their size and conspicuously protruding teeth demand respect. Special caution is needed when spearfishing as a handful of bites have occurred on spearfishers carrying speared fish. There are accounts of sand tigers stealing fish from stringers and spears underwater. In total, the ISAF has only 29 records of unprovoked sand tiger bites on humans, none have resulted in a fatality (ISAF 2018).

The sand tiger shark can be found in most warm seas throughout the world except for the eastern Pacific. In the western Atlantic Ocean it ranges from the Gulf of Maine (U.S.A) to Argentina and is commonly found in Cape Cod (U.S.) and Delaware Bay (U.S.) during the summer months. In the eastern Atlantic, it ranges from the coast of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea down to South Africa In the Pacific it ranges from Australia to Japan (Pollard and Smith, 2009).

Sand tigers are commonly found inshore ranging in depths from 6 to 626 feet (1.8 to 191 m). The sand tiger is found in a variety of habitats including the surf zone, shallow bays, coral and rocky reefs and deeper areas around the outer continental shelves. C. taurus is often found on the bottom but can also be seen at all levels in the water column. It is migratory within its region, moving poleward during the summer while making equatorial movements during the fall and winter months (Compagno et al. 2005).

Distinctive Features

The sand tiger shark is a large, bulky shark with a flattened conical snout and a long mouth that extends behind the eyes. The first dorsal fin is set back and is much closer to the pelvic fins than the pectoral fins. The anal and dorsal fins are large and broad-based and the second dorsal fin is almost the same size as the first dorsal. Gill slits are anterior to the origin of the pectoral fins in this species. The caudal fin of the sand tiger shark is asymmetrically shaped with a strongly pronounced upper lobe.

Dentition

The teeth of the sand tiger shark have long and narrow primary cusps with small lateral cusplets. The upper anterior teeth are separated by small intermediate teeth at the symphysis. The upper teeth number 44 to 48 and the lower teeth number 41 to 46. The teeth in the corners of the mouth are small and numerous. The ragged looking teeth give the sand tiger shark a menacing appearance.

Denticles

Dermal denticles are loosely spaced and ovoid lanceolate shaped with three ridges. The axial ridge is prominent and sharp-edged anteriorly but usually is subdivided and flat-topped posteriorly. In individuals around 3.3 feet (100cm) long denticle sizes are about 0.016 inches (0.4mm) broad by 0.018 inches (0.45mm) long.

Size, Age, and Growth

Average size ranges from four to nine feet with maximum length believed to be around 10.5 feet (320 cm) in females and 9.9 feet (301 cm) in males. Males and females mature at about 2 m (6.5 ft) in total length. Maximum age estimates based on vertebral centra are 30-35 years old but the oldest recorded individuals in aquariums have lived to be 16 years old.

Food Habits

The diet feeder consists primarily of a wide variety of bony fish including herring, bluefish, flatfish, eel, mullet, snapper, hake, porgie, croakes, bonito, remora, sea robin and sea bass. They also consume rays, squid, crab, lobster and other smaller sharks. Cooperative feeding has been observed by schools of sharks surrounding and bunching schooling prey prior to feeding on them.

Reproduction

Embryonic development is ovoviviparous with embryophagy occurring in the uteri. Usually only one pup survives in each uteri since the largest embryo ends up eating all of its smaller siblings during gestation. This generally limits litter sizes to two individuals. At 6.7 inches (17 cm) embryos have functional teeth and are feeding and at 10.2 inches (26 cm) they are able to move in utero. Gestation periods may be around nine to twelve months and pups generally measure 39 inches (99 cm) at birth.

Distinctive Behavior

Since the sand tiger shark is denser than water and lacks a swim bladder like bony fish, it has adopted a behavior that allows it to become neutrally buoyant in the water column. The shark comes to the surface and gulps air, which it holds in its stomach. This allows the shark to hover motionless in the water.

The sand tiger shark was originally named Carcharias taurus by Rafinesque in 1810. Since then it has also been referred to literature as Odontaspis taurus Rafinesque 1810, Eugomphodus taurus Rafinesque 1810, Odontaspis americanus Mitchill 1815, Squalus americanus Mitchill 1815, Carcharias griseus Ayres 1843, Odontaspis arenarius Ogilby 1911, Carcharias arenarius Ogilby 1911, Odontaspis platensis Lahille 1928, and Carcharius platensisLahille 1928.

A member of the family Bovidae, the species Bos taurus (B. taurus) is comprised of several hundred different breeds and makes up the majority of domestic beef and dairy cattle found through out the Americas and Europe. Of these numerous breeds several of the most common, including Holsteins and Ayrshires, are found in Wisconsin. Features common to this family include: a paraxonic toe arrangement, fused metapodials (canon bone), the presence of true horns, a four chambered stomach, lack of upper incisors and canines, and an overall hypsodont tooth morphology common to grazers (Feldhammer 1999).

Due to the amount of variation present among breeds, specific morphological characteristics must be presented as approximations. An attempt was made to focus on breeds found within Wisconsin, primarily the Holstein, and the resulting data may not accurately describe all breeds of B. taurus.

According to data presented by the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food (2003), the average height at rump and length from nose to tail recorded for Holstein cattle surveyed was 58-59 in and 95-102 in respectively. Weights averaged 1500-1900 lbs, though significant variation was seen among females during the various stages of lactation. Numerous color variations exist between species, with common patterns made of black or tan and white. Color patterns are unique for each individual which allows for easy identification.

Due to the process of domestication it is difficult to describe the natural behavior and ecology of B. taurus. Individuals occurring in Wisconsin are exclusively a domestic species and thus behavior and ecology must be described in these terms.

A gregarious animal, B. taurus occurs in herds of with an average size of 24-52 individuals (Jesse 2002). In wild settings, herding behavior provided such benefits as increased safety from predators and chances for mating, however in modern herds it is primarily a function of a domestication and human manipulation. Herds are generally comprised of females and juveniles, with adult males being separated and used primarily for stud purposes. This system produces a form of unnatural polygyny where access to the available females is restricted, with only certain males being allowed to breed with multiple females. This planned manipulation eliminates competition and fighting between males and significantly alters the natural breeding behavior of B. taurus in an attempt to control reproduction and improve domestic stocks.

Feeding habits could be described as bulk grazing with a focus on fresh grasses and other succulent vegetation (Feldhammer 1999). As is typical of most grazers a herd will feed in a particular area until the preferred or available food sources are depleted at which time it will move on in search of more vegetation. In a domestic setting various grazing rotation systems have been developed in an attempt to mimic nature and maintain a constant food source while preventing damage to the vegetation through over grazing. This involves continually moving the herd to various different enclosures as the vegetation regenerates in the previously grazed areas. The ecological impacts of these practices have been observed and include such things as the alteration of vegetation composition, age class, and structure as well as the indirect production of habitat for numerous other animal species (Warren 2002, Kazmaier 2001).

In addition to their ecological interactions with the environment, B. taurus is also affected by interactions with native animal species, predominantly predators. As a general rule, grazers and their young are often the focus of predators due to their abundance and tendency to come together in large herds. Also as part of the domestication process species are often breed to be placid and less wary than their wild relatives. This combination often produces a situation were the cattle become easy targets for predators which have discovered their vulnerable nature. Predation events by Gray wolves (Canis lupes) have increased in recent years as wolf populations have continued to grow. The majority of cases, approximately 17 each year, have come from the northern third of the state where a large portion of the current wolf population, approximately 355 individuals, is located (Wisconsin wolf advisory committee 2003).

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