It looks like you're using Virtualbox, so the following plugin may help solve your problem. It allows you to specify a new disk size when you run "vagrant up".
As a general statement, the provider may have facilities to change the size of the disk when it creates it the VM, but the instructions you add to your Vagrantfile will be specific to the provider. Aside from that plugin, I don't see that the vbox provider has such a facility, but - as an example - the libvirt provider has a parameter "machine_virtual_size".
=====
If you want to resize the disk later, after the VM has been created with Vagrant, you would need to use whatever facilities, if any, are provided by the target environment for enlarging virtual disks. In most cases, this increases the size of the virtual disk without modifying the filesystem to _use_ the extra space. The steps you followed appear to be a standard way (from the command line) to modify the virtual size of a VMDK; this operation is common enough that the GUI for the virtual environment usually has a resize operation somewhere. For Virtualbox, it's under File->VirtualMediaManager. Select the disk, select properties and move the slider to the new size - but it only works for VDI not VMDK, and only while the VM is halted.
I said "while the VM is halted", but the usual way to handle this for VMs is to boot the VM from a virtual ISO image containing a live or rescue image. The VM isn't halted, but the root disk of the vagrant-created machine is not in use and can be manipulated by the tools.
=====
After the disk is resized, either at creation or afterwards, the partition and filesystem have to be extended to use the additional space. Windows NTFS can be extended live with DISKPART. Linux systems generally use a tool like gparted and it's not advisable to try to apply it to a running system's root disk. Gparted can extend or shrink partitions and, for file systems it knows about, move the contents of the partition to their new size and location. But you can also change the partitions with a tool like fdisk.
But extending a partition is not the same operation as extending a file system to make use of the new space. For ext234 partitions, there is a command resizefs and for xfs file systems there is a command xfs_growfs that can perform this third step.
=====
Resources: