Linguistic Modules

[Nina Zahra]

Thelanguage module or language faculty is a hypothetical structure in the human brain which is thought to contain innate capacities for language, originally posited by Noam Chomsky. There is ongoing research into brain modularity in the fields of cognitive science and neuroscience, although the current idea is much weaker than what was proposed by Chomsky and Jerry Fodor in the 1980s. In today's terminology, 'modularity' refers to specialisation: language processing is specialised in the brain to the extent that it occurs partially in different areas than other types of information processing such as visual input. The current[vague] view is, then, that language is neither compartmentalised nor based on general principles of processing (as proposed by George Lakoff). It is modular to the extent that it constitutes a specific cognitive skill or area in cognition.[1][2][3]

The notion of a dedicated language module in the human brain originated with Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar (UG). The debate on the issue of modularity in language is underpinned, in part, by different understandings of this concept.[4] There is, however, some consensus in the literature that a module is considered committed to processing specialized representations (domain-specificity)[5][6] in an informationally encapsulated way.[6][7] A distinction should be drawn between anatomical modularity, which proposes there is one 'area' in the brain that deals with this processing, and functional modularity that obviates anatomical modularity whilst maintaining information encapsulation in distributed parts of the brain.[8]

The available evidence points toward the conclusion that no single area of the brain is solely devoted to processing language. The Wada test, where sodium amobarbital is used to anaesthetise one hemisphere, shows that the left-hemisphere appears to be crucial in language processing.[9] Yet, neuroimaging does not implicate any single area but rather identifies many different areas as being involved in different aspects of language processing.[10][11][12] and not just in the left hemisphere.[13] Further, individual areas appear to subserve a number of different functions.[10][14] Thus, the extent to which language processing occurs within an anatomical module is considered to be minimal. Nevertheless, as many have suggested,[15][16] modular processing can still exist even when implemented across the brain; that is, language processing could occur within a functional module.

A common way to demonstrate modularity is to find a double dissociation. That is two groups: First, people for whom language is severely damaged and yet have normal cognitive abilities and, second, persons for whom normal cognitive abilities are grossly impaired and yet language remains intact.[17][18][19] Whilst extensive lesions in the left hemisphere perisylvian area can render persons unable to produce or perceive language (global aphasia),[20] there is no known acquired case where language is completely intact in the face of severe non-linguistic deterioration.[21] Thus, functional module status cannot be granted to language processing based on this evidence.

Indeed, if language were a module it would be informationally encapsulated. Yet, there is evidence to suggest that this is not the case. For instance, in the McGurk effect, watching lips say one phoneme whilst another is played creates the percept of a blended phoneme.[31][32] Further, Tanenhaus, Spivey-Knowlton, Eberhard and Sedivy (1995) demonstrated visual information mediating syntactic processing. In addition, the putative language module should process only that information relevant to language (i.e., be domain-specific). Yet evidence suggests that areas purported to subserve language also mediate motor control[33] and non-linguistic sound comprehension.[34] Although it is possible that separate processes could be occurring but below the resolution of current imaging techniques, when all this evidence is taken together the case for information encapsulation is weakened.

Our department offers a selection of modules in linguistics and languages. Which modules are available to you will depend on your programme of study. Please consult your supervisor if you are not sure which options are best for you.

These are the key areas of linguistic research carried out at York, and you will be taught by experts in each field at every stage of your degree. We teach four of these core areas in the first year, then add psycholinguistics at the beginning of the second year.

The first year of the following courses includes Introduction to phonetics and phonology, Introduction to syntax, and up to one additional core linguistics module. Choices for the additional core linguistics module are indicated, where applicable:

In this module you apply your Year 1 knowledge of phonetics/phonology and syntax to fundamental questions in psycholinguistics: what mechanisms allow children to acquire language so easily, and why does language learning get more difficult when you get older?

Or, you can begin to customise your degree at this point, and drop one or more of the areas of core linguistics, taking other options offered on your particular course, instead. On most of our linguistics degree courses, you must include either Intermediate Phonetics and Phonology or Intermediate Syntax in your second-year choices. For details of module content, see our second year module descriptions.

In all of our final-year modules, you will apply or build on your core knowledge from the first or second year. We offer advanced-level modules in the core areas, such as Articulatory and Impressionistic Phonetics, Formal Syntactic Theory, and Methods in Language Variation and Change. We also offer modules that use core knowledge to explore different sub-fields of linguistics, such as neurolinguistics, pragmatics, and historical-comparative linguistics. See our current final-year modules for a typical range of modules offered. (Note that module offerings vary from year to year. The range of modules offered in your final-year may differ slightly from the range offered in the current final-year.)

Our School offers a wide range of Trinity Language and Culture Electives to all Trinity College undergraduate students who do not study a language as part of their degree course. These modules aim to improve your readiness for Study Abroad programmes in Europe and in East Asia, and to enhance your career prospects.

The self-directed online learning modules are delivered through our virtual classroom space. Access to these modules is free. We recommend that you progress through them in order, because the content builds upon the previous module(s).

Participants will analyze conscious and unconscious attitudes, which can lead to cultural conflicts and barriers to the interpreting process. Participants will consider the implications of privilege on the consumer-interpreter relationship. Additionally, as part of our analysis, we will look more closely at potential intrapersonal demands that might arise before, during, and after interpreted interactions. The more you understand these potential intrapersonal demands, the more controls you will have available in your toolbox.

In Module 3, participants begin to apply prior learning from Modules 1 and 2 toward practical application strategies for effectively interpreting with diverse atypical language users. With a key focus on the collaborative nature of the interpreting team, participants will apply strategies to evaluate the effectiveness of the team process, assess consumer language needs, evaluate whether effective communication has been established, and select tools to assist with effective communication within a variety of contexts. Finally, participants will be encouraged to apply critical thinking and creativity when problem-solving through challenges that may arise when striving to meet the needs of diverse individuals with atypical language.

The aim of this module is to provide an overview of major topics and issues in psycholinguistics and cognitive studies of language. We look at how people produce and understand language; how language is organised in the mind and brain; the embodied and metaphorical basis for language; the relationship between language and thought and the significance of linguistic diversity; the development and acquisition of language; and the connection between language and gesture.

Assessment: One 4,000-word final project report or essay

This module explores the relationship between language and society, examining how variation in language structure is distributed across different aspects of society, for example, the correlation between the use of particular linguistic forms and social class groups, genders, age groups and geographical areas. The module considers the associations that develop between aspects of a speaker's identity and different linguistic forms, the role of prestige (overt and covert), stigmatisation and the significance of one's social networks and communities, and how these facets of variation lead to changes in the English language.

Assessment: One 4,000-word final project report or essay

The aim of this module is to give an overview of the theoretical and practical foundations and implications of bilingualism and multilingualism in the TESOL classroom. In the context of a multilingual class environment, definitions of bi- and multilingualism will be encountered and discussed from a number of perspectives, e.g. their connection with societal issues, thinking and intelligence, cognitive theories, educational policies and teacher training, in-class response and strategies. The last point includes practical implications and will lead you to envisage and design practical approaches to successfully include bi- and multilingualism in their daily TESOL classroom practice.

This module offers advanced studies in a specialist area of Applied English Linguistics: Corpus Linguistics. A number of issues in corpus linguistics are considered, including the compilation of a corpus; the information to be gained from concordance lines and collocational information, and how this can be interpreted; the implications for theories of language of observations made from a corpus; contrasting approaches to corpora, and the theoretical assumptions behind each; current applications of corpora, mainly language teaching and/or translation, but also stylistics, ideology and forensic linguistics; possible future directions in corpus linguistics.

Assessment: 4,000-word essay

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