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Morgana Castrillo
The NTSB determined the probable cause of the accident to be a partial loss of engine power due to multiple overtemperature events and a hot start event, which resulted in thermally damaged internal components of the engine. Contributing to the accident was the lack of suitable terrain on which to perform the forced landing.
Fetal membranes (FMs) play a role in pregnancy maintenance and promoting parturition at term. The FMs are not just part of the placenta, structurally or functionally. Although attached to the placenta, the amnion has a separate embryologic origin, and the chorion deviates from the placenta by the first month of pregnancy. Other than immune protection, these FM functions are not those of the placenta. FM dysfunction is associated with and may cause adverse pregnancy outcomes. Ongoing research may identify biomarkers for pending preterm premature rupture of the FMs as well as therapeutic agents, to prevent it and resulting preterm birth.
How does miR124 exert its control? To address this next question, Doetsch studied targets of the microRNA, including the genes Dix-2, Jag-1, Sox-9, and Pea-15. All of these were knocked down in the presence of the microRNA. Sox-9 is of particular interest to Doetsch because it is expressed in astrocytes, and its mRNA, but not the protein, is found in neuroblasts. Using a Sox-9 gene construct lacking the region that binds miR124, Doetsch showed that overexpression of the gene abolished neurogenesis, and adding miR124 did not rescue this effect. The results suggest that the major effect of miR124 on neurogenesis is probably through suppression of Sox-9, Doetsch said.
To facilitate the application of the mere exposure effect on advertising, it is important to clarify the characteristics of the mere exposure effect in terms of human factors. For this purpose, an important factor for consideration is selective attention. Several studies have demonstrated the importance of selective attention in affective modulation of exposed stimuli (Raymond et al., 2003; Yagi et al., 2009; Huang and Hsieh, 2013). For example, Yagi et al. (2009) reported that the supraliminal mere exposure effect occurred only for an object selected by attention. Here, participants were repeatedly presented with a composite figure consisting of a red polygon and a green polygon. The participants were required to attend to either or both of the colored components. Results showed that the mere exposure effect was obtained only for the polygons morphologically identical to the previously attended polygons. The effect of selective attention on affective evaluation has also been reported in studies of the distractor devaluation effect (Raymond et al., 2003), in which previously unattended objects are devalued relative to previously attended objects or novel objects. The results of these studies contradict the naïve intuition that the mere exposure effect always occurs for every part of a previously exposed complex stimulus.
The aim of the present study is to clarify what part of an advertising image triggers the mere exposure effect. To achieve this aim, we mainly manipulated the relationship between advertising images repeatedly presented in an exposure phase and images presented in a later rating phase. In the exposure phase of all experiments, participants were repeatedly presented with advertising images consisting of multiple objects, specifically, a commercial product and an attractive, female model. In the rating phase of Experiment 1, participants were asked to evaluate their preference for the exposed advertising images and for unexposed advertising images. The aim was to ensure whether the mere exposure effect occurred for the exposed advertising images themselves. In contrast, in the rating phase of subsequent experiments, a female model (Experiment 2) or a product (Experiment 3) previously included in the exposed advertising images was presented to investigate whether the mere exposure effect can occur for only a part of the advertising images. We also replicated Experiment 3 with additional instructions that encouraged participants to direct their attention in the exposure phase to the part of the advertisement containing the product (Experiment 4). This was done to explore the effect of selective attention on, if any, differences in the mere exposure effect between Experiments 2 and 3.
Experiment 1 consisted of an exposure phase and a rating phase. In the exposure phase, each trial began with the presentation of a fixation point for 500 ms, immediately followed by the presentation of an advertising image for 500 ms. After the removal of the advertising image, a blank display was presented for 1500 ms, which was followed by the fixation point for the next trial. Participants were asked to focus on the advertising image during a trial. The exposure phase consisted of 64 experimental trials as follows. Each participant was assigned to one of the two sets of eight advertising images; assignment was counterbalanced across participants. Each advertising image was presented eight times in random order, with the restriction that the same image never appeared on three consecutive trials.
Mereology has been explored in various ways as applications of predicate logic to formal ontology, in each of which mereology is an important part. Each of these fields provides its own axiomatic definition of mereology. A common element of such axiomatizations is the assumption, shared with inclusion, that the part-whole relation orders its universe, meaning that everything is a part of itself (reflexivity), that a part of a part of a whole is itself a part of that whole (transitivity), and that two distinct entities cannot each be a part of the other (antisymmetry), thus forming a poset. A variant of this axiomatization denies that anything is ever part of itself (irreflexivity) while accepting transitivity, from which antisymmetry follows automatically.
Although mereology is an application of mathematical logic, what could be argued to be a sort of "proto-geometry", it has been wholly developed by logicians, ontologists, linguists, engineers, and computer scientists, especially those working in artificial intelligence. In particular, mereology is also on the basis for a point-free foundation of geometry (see for example the quoted pioneering paper of Alfred Tarski and the review paper by Gerla 1995).
In general systems theory, mereology refers to formal work on system decomposition and parts, wholes and boundaries (by, e.g., Mihajlo D. Mesarovic (1970), Gabriel Kron (1963), or Maurice Jessel (see Bowden (1989, 1998)). A hierarchical version of Gabriel Kron's Network Tearing was published by Keith Bowden (1991), reflecting David Lewis's ideas on gunk. Such ideas appear in theoretical computer science and physics, often in combination with sheaf theory, topos, or category theory. See also the work of Steve Vickers on (parts of) specifications in computer science, Joseph Goguen on physical systems, and Tom Etter (1996, 1998) on link theory and quantum mechanics.
Informal part-whole reasoning was consciously invoked in metaphysics and ontology from Plato (in particular, in the second half of the Parmenides) and Aristotle onwards, and more or less unwittingly in 19th-century mathematics until the triumph of set theory around 1910. Metaphysical ideas of this era that discuss the concepts of parts and wholes include divine simplicity and the classical conception of beauty.
Stanisław Leśniewski coined "mereology" in 1927, from the Greek word μέρος (méros, "part"), to refer to a formal theory of part-whole he devised in a series of highly technical papers published between 1916 and 1931, and translated in Leśniewski (1992). Leśniewski's student Alfred Tarski, in his Appendix E to Woodger (1937) and the paper translated as Tarski (1984), greatly simplified Leśniewski's formalism. Other students (and students of students) of Lesniewski elaborated this "Polish mereology" over the course of the 20th century. For a good selection of the literature on Polish mereology, see Srzednicki and Rickey (1984). For a survey of Polish mereology, see Simons (1987). Since 1980 or so, however, research on Polish mereology has been almost entirely historical in nature.
A. N. Whitehead planned a fourth volume of Principia Mathematica, on geometry, but never wrote it. His 1914 correspondence with Bertrand Russell reveals that his intended approach to geometry can be seen, with the benefit of hindsight, as mereological in essence. This work culminated in Whitehead (1916) and the mereological systems of Whitehead (1919, 1920).
In 1930, Henry S. Leonard completed a Harvard Ph.D. dissertation in philosophy, setting out a formal theory of the part-whole relation. This evolved into the "calculus of individuals" of Goodman and Leonard (1940). Goodman revised and elaborated this calculus in the three editions of Goodman (1951). The calculus of individuals is the starting point for the post-1970 revival of mereology among logicians, ontologists, and computer scientists, a revival well-surveyed in Simons (1987), Casati and Varzi (1999), and Cotnoir and Varzi (2021).
Reflexivity: A basic choice in defining a mereological system, is whether to consider things to be parts of themselves. In naive set theory a similar question arises: whether a set is to be considered a "member" of itself. In both cases, "yes" gives rise to paradoxes analogous to Russell's paradox: Let there be an object O such that every object that is not a proper part of itself is a proper part of O. Is O a proper part of itself? No, because no object is a proper part of itself; and yes, because it meets the specified requirement for inclusion as a proper part of O. In set theory, a set is often termed an improper subset of itself. Given such paradoxes, mereology requires an axiomatic formulation.
A mereological "system" is a first-order theory (with identity) whose universe of discourse consists of wholes and their respective parts, collectively called objects. Mereology is a collection of nested and non-nested axiomatic systems, not unlike the case with modal logic.
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