This flew under my radar for a while (5 years!): the extended read-only filesystem (EROFS).
"Evaluation results show that EROFS
outperforms existing compressed read-only file systems with
various micro-benchmarks and reduces the boot time of real world applications by up to 22.9% while nearly halving the
storage usage."
"There is currently a lot of effort that goes into optimizing image layout that is all needed solely due to the tar format; "in my mind, this is insanity", Sarai said. The community needs to stop expending so much energy working around the limitations of the tar format. There may be 500 instances of Bash in the guests on a system, but they cannot share the same inode in a tar-based format, so they are treated as distinct files."
Ben