Thermodynamics Notes Class 11 Chemistry Pdf Free Download

[Lalo Scalf]

Thermodynamicsdeals with the concepts of heat and temperature and the inter-conversion of heat and other forms of energy. The four laws of thermodynamics govern the behaviour of these quantities and provide a quantitative description. William Thomson, in 1749, coined the term thermodynamics.

To be specific, it explains how thermal energy is converted to or from other forms of energy and how matter is affected by this process. Thermal energy is the energy that comes from heat. This heat is generated by the movement of tiny particles within an object, and the faster these particles move, the more heat is generated.

Thermodynamics is not concerned about how and at what rate these energy transformations are carried out. It is based on the initial and final states undergoing the change. It should also be noted that Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science. This means that it deals with the bulk system and does not deal with the molecular constitution of matter.

The distinction between mechanics and thermodynamics is worth noting. In mechanics, we solely concentrate on the motion of particles or bodies under the action of forces and torques. On the other hand, thermodynamics is not concerned with the motion of the system as a whole. It is only concerned with the internal macroscopic state of the body.

In classical thermodynamics, the behaviour of matter is analysed with a macroscopic approach. Units such as temperature and pressure are taken into consideration, which helps the individuals calculate other properties and predict the characteristics of the matter undergoing the process.

In statistical thermodynamics, every molecule is under the spotlight, i.e. the properties of every molecule and how they interact are taken into consideration to characterise the behaviour of a group of molecules.

Thermodynamics has its own unique vocabulary associated with it. A good understanding of the basic concepts forms a sound understanding of various topics discussed in thermodynamics preventing possible misunderstandings.

A thermodynamic system is a specific portion of matter with a definite boundary on which our attention is focused. The system boundary may be real or imaginary, fixed or deformable.

There are three types of systems:

A thermodynamic cycle is a process or a combination of processes conducted such that the initial and final states of the system are the same. A thermodynamic cycle is also known as cyclic operation or cyclic processes.

Thermodynamic potentials are quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials measure the energy changes in a system as they evolve from the initial state to the final state. Different potentials are used based on the system constraints, such as temperature and pressure.

Thermodynamics laws define the fundamental physical quantities like energy, temperature and entropy that characterize thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium. These thermodynamics laws represent how these quantities behave under various circumstances.

Consider two cups A and B, with boiling water. When a thermometer is placed in cup A, it gets warmed up by the water until it reads 100 C. When it reads 100 C, we say that the thermometer is in equilibrium with cup A. When we move the thermometer to cup B to read the temperature, it continues to read 100 C. The thermometer is also in equilibrium with cup B. By keeping in mind the zeroth law of thermodynamics, we can conclude that cup A and cup B are in equilibrium with each other.

If a room is not tidied or cleaned, it invariably becomes more messy and disorderly with time. When the room is cleaned, its entropy decreases, but the effort to clean it has resulted in increased entropy outside the room exceeding the entropy lost.

Thermodynamics and Chemistry is designed as a textbook for a one-semester course in classical chemical thermodynamics at the graduate or undergraduate level, and can also serve as a supplementary text and thermodynamics reference source.

The ebook and Solutions Manual are licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licensesthat allow them to be revised and redistributed in any form for any purpose, even commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given to me as the original author. Contact me for the LaTeX source files.

1. Chemical thermodynamics deals with energy changes that occur during chemical reactions and processes involving chemical substances. 2. It helps determine the feasibility and extent of chemical reactions and processes under given conditions based on fundamental laws of physical chemistry.3. Key concepts include the various types of systems (open, closed, isolated), state functions, state variables, and different thermodynamic processes (isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, isochoric).Read less

Looking for revision notes that are specific to the exam board you are studying? If so, click the links below to view our condensed, easy-to-understand revision notes for each exam board, practice exam question booklets, mindmap visual aids, interactive quizzes, PowerPoint presentations and a library of past papers directly from the exam boards.

Enthalpy is the heat content of a system. As we all know, the heat can go in or out of the system. If this system is a chemical reaction, the change of heat is called enthalpy change. Knowing if the enthalpy of the system increases or decreases,during a chemical reaction is a crucial factor to understand if that reaction can happen.The change in the enthalpy of the system during a chemical reaction is defined as the change in its internal energy plus the change in the product of the pressure times the volume of the system:

Entropy refers to the measure of the level of disorder in a thermodynamic system. It is measured as joules per kelvin (J/K) and denoted by the symbol 'S'. For any spontaneous process, the entropy of the system should increase. Entropy is calculated in terms of change as well and defined with the following formula:

Ludwig Boltzmann defines entropy as the measure of the number of possible microscopic configurations of the atoms and molecules in accordance with the macroscopic state of the system. It can be described with the following equation:

Based on this definition, solids have lowest entropy due to their more regular crystalline structure; liquids have an intermediate entropy as they are more ordered than gas but less ordered than solids; Gases are known to have the highest entropy as they have the most disorder.

Gibbs Free Energy is used to measure the amount of available energy that a chemical reaction provides. As reactions are usually temperature dependent, and sometimes work significantly better at some temperatures than others, the ΔGf values known are only valid at 25C (298.15 K).

It's important to note that spontaneous does not necessarily mean that the specific reaction proceeds at high rate. A spontaneous reaction can take ages to go to completion. A classic example is the rusting of metal.

Going back to enthalpy and entropy, we can define the relationships between these two values, correlating them with the Gibbs free energy. For all temperatures, including 25C, the following equation can be used to determine spontaneity of a chemical reaction:

The value calculated for ΔG is considered an approximate, especially as the temperature moves further away from 25C as both ΔH and ΔS will vary with temperature. A change of ΔS will impact ΔG tends less. This is because ΔS is measured in units of J/K and when converted to kJ/K it is numerically small. A small change of ΔH but can have a great impact on ΔG.

The book draws on existing classical thermodynamics texts, but brings something new to the table in the form of pedagogical explanations of the material taught with many practical problems and detailed solutions such as calculating how dangerous a bit of stray grease on a laboratory gas line can be, or determining how deep a submarine must submerge before the seawater is under enough pressure to produce fresh water inside the submarine from seawater.

Blankschtein, the Herman P. Meissner (1929) Professor of Chemical Engineering, began teaching in 1986, and has received the annual Course X Graduate Student Council Outstanding Faculty Award nine times.

Blankschtein has also done theoretical and experimental work aimed at using ultrasound to temporarily open conduits in the skin so that drugs like insulin can be delivered through the skin rather than via injection. His theoretical modeling work identified the necessary conditions for the successful transdermal delivery of many drugs.

Blankschtein waited until his research group got smaller, and then dedicated a sabbatical to the process of expanding and refining his lecture notes into the book that the students had requested. The book, which tops 750 pages, took about three years to complete.

The book shows the reader how to solve challenging problems in classical thermodynamics by applying fundamental principles in a series of solved problems that appear throughout the book, and in 35 additional challenging problems and solutions at the end of the book.

The submarine problem features a creative chemical engineering graduate student trying his luck in the business world, said Blankschtein. The student can supplement his monthly stipend by inventing and patenting a novel scheme to produce freshwater for the crew of a nuclear submarine from the saltwater of the sea.

As the submarine descends into the sea, the pressure inside the submarine stays roughly the same while the pressure of the seawater outside the submarine increases. The question to be solved is how deep must the submarine descend before the pressure difference is enough to force fresh water into the submarine through a semipermeable membrane via reverse osmosis, thereby filtering out the salt ions to produce freshwater for the crew in the submarine.

After the students gain a good understanding of classical thermodynamics, they learn statistical mechanics at an introductory albeit deep level, where they can understand and relate what happens at the microscopic level to the thermodynamic behavior which is observed at the macroscopic level.

3a8082e126