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The experimental ordinance was passed in October in the southern city of Porto Alegre and city councilman Ramiro Rosário revealed this week that it was written by a chatbot, sparking objections and raising questions about the role of artificial intelligence in public policy.
"The powerful testimony from veteran and young scholars in Written/Unwritten illustrates the barriers that still must be shattered, while also pointing the way forward to creating a more inclusive, diverse and intellectually vibrant academy."--Diverse: Issues in Higher Education
"I don't think there has been a more important higher education book in the last thirty years than Patricia Matthew's Written/Unwritten, which obliterates the notion that all we need in our nation's colleges and universities is more black and brown professors. In pieces that are at once brilliantly personal and critical, Matthew and her contributors show us how professors of color, and primarily black women professors, are critiqued and disciplined so much more harshly while being asked to do work their male colleagues would never be asked to do. We've been waiting generations for this book. This book will change the way evaluation and value are ritualized at America's colleges and universities."--Kiese Laymon, author of Long Division and How to Slowly Kill Yourself and Others in America
The grade and the teacher comments should appear on the paper. If a grading rubric was used, please include this information along with your paper. The Admission Office is more interested in the quality of the writing than the grade it received and encourages you to submit a graded written paper that shows your best efforts, regardless of the grade.
A written language is the representation of a language by means of writing. This involves the use of visual symbols, known as graphemes, to represent linguistic units such as phonemes, syllables, morphemes, or words. However, it is important to note that written language is not merely spoken or signed language written down, though it can approximate that. Instead, it is a separate system with its own norms, structures, and stylistic conventions, and it often evolves differently than its corresponding spoken or signed language.
The development and use of written language have had profound impacts on human societies throughout history, influencing social organization, cultural identity, technology, and the dissemination of knowledge. In contemporary times, the advent of digital technology has led to significant changes in the ways we use written language, from the creation of new written genres and conventions to the evolution of writing systems themselves.
In contrast, written language is typically more structured and formal. It allows for planning, revision, and editing, which can lead to more complex sentences and a more extensive vocabulary. Written language also has to convey meaning without the aid of tone of voice, facial expressions, or body language, which often results in more explicit and detailed descriptions.[3] It may include typographic elements like typeface choices, font sizes, and bold face. The types of errors found in the modalities also differ.
The author of a written text is often difficult to discern simply by reading the printed text, even if the author is known to the reader, though stylistic elements may help to identify them. In contrast a speaker is typically more identifiable from their voice. In written language, handwriting is a similar identifier.
Moreover, written languages generally change more slowly than their spoken or signed counterparts. This can lead to situations where the written form of a language maintains archaic features or spellings that no longer reflect current pronunciation.[4] Over time, such divergence may lead to a situation known as diglossia.
Despite their differences, spoken, signed, and written language forms do influence each other, and the boundaries between them can be fluid, particularly in informal written contexts such as text messaging or social media posts.[5]
There are too many grammatical differences to address, but here is a sample. In terms of clause types, written language is predominantly declarative (e.g., It's red.) and typically contains fewer imperatives (e.g., Make it red.), interrogatives (e.g., Is it red?), and exclamatives (e.g., How red it is!) than spoken or signed language. Noun phrases are generally predominantly third person, but they are even more so in written language. Verb phrases in spoken English are more likely to be in simple aspect than in perfect or progressive aspect, and almost all of the past perfect verbs appear in written fiction.[6]
Information packaging is the way that information is packaged within a sentence, that is the linear order in which information is presented. For example, On the hill, there was a tree has a different informational structure than There was a tree on the hill. While, in English, at least, the second structure is more common, the first example is relatively much more common in written language than in spoken language. Another example is that a construction like it was difficult to follow him is relatively more common in written language than in spoken language, compared to the alternative packaging to follow him was difficult.[7] A final example, again from English, is that the passive voice is relatively more common in writing than in speaking.[8]
Written language typically has higher lexical density than spoken or signed language, meaning there is a wider range of vocabulary used and individual words are less likely to be repeated. It also includes fewer first and second-person pronouns and fewer interjections. Written English has fewer verbs and more nouns than spoken English, but even accounting for that, verbs like think, say, know, and guess appear relatively less commonly with a content clause complement (e.g., I think that it's OK.) in written English than in spoken English.[9]
The so-called "high variety", often the written language, is used in formal contexts, such as literature, formal education, or official communications. This variety tends to be more standardized and conservative, and may incorporate older or more formal vocabulary and grammar.[11] The "low variety", often the spoken language, is used in everyday conversation and informal contexts. It is typically more dynamic and innovative, and may incorporate regional dialects, slang, and other informal language features.[12]
Diagraphia obtains when a language may be written in different scripts. Serbian, for instance, may be written in Cyrillic and Latin scripts. Another example is Hindustani, which may be written in Urdu alphabet or in Devanagari.
The first writing can be dated back to the Neolithic era, with clay tablets being used to keep track of livestock and commodities. However, the first example of written language can be dated to Uruk, at the end of the 4th millennium BCE.[15] An ancient Mesopotamian poem tells a tale about the invention of writing.
Scholars mark the difference between prehistory and history with the invention of the first written language.[17] However, that leaves the argument of what is and is not a written language, an argument over the transition of history to pre-history being whether a piece of writing in proto-writing, or genuine writing, making the matter largely subjective.,[18] leaving the line in a gray-area. A general consensus is that writing is a method of recording information, composed of graphemes, which also may be glyphs, and it should represent some form of spoken language as well, falling hand in hand with containing information, allowing numbers to be counted as writing as well.[19]
The origins of written language are tied to the development of human civilization. The earliest forms of writing were born out of the necessity to record trade transactions, historical events, and cultural traditions.[20]
In these systems, each grapheme more or less represents a word or a morpheme (a meaningful unit of language). Arabic numerals are examples of logographs. Upon seeing the numeral 3, for instance, the reader understands both the intended number and its pronunciation in the appropriate language. Chinese characters, Japanese kanji, and ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs are more general examples of logographic writing systems.[29] The Japanese word kanji, for instance, may be written 漢字. The first character is read kan and means roughly "Chinese", while the second is read ji and means roughly "character".
A syllabary is a set of graphemes that represent syllables or sometimes mora and can be combined to write words. Examples include the Japanese kana scripts and the Cherokee syllabary.[30] For example, in Japanese, kana can be written かんじ, with か being the syllable ka, ん being a syllabic n, and じ being ji. Unlike the kanji, the individual kana denote only sounds, and are not associated with any particular words or meanings.
Orthography is the conventional elements of the writing system of a language.[34] It involves the use of graphemes and the standardized ways these symbols are arranged to represent words, including spelling. In the kanji examples above, it was noted that the word is typically written as 漢字, though it may also be written as かんじ. This conventionalized fact is part of Japanese orthography. Similarly, the fact that sorry is spelled as it is and not some other way (e.g., sawry) is an orthographic fact of English.
Spoken, signed, and written languages are integral facets of human communication, each with its unique characteristics and functions. They often influence each other, and the boundaries between them can be fluid. For example, in spoken and written language interaction, speech-to-text technologies convert spoken language into written text, and text-to-speech technologies do the reverse.
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