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In monarchies where polygamy has been practised in the past (such as Morocco and Thailand), or is practised today (such as the Zulu nation and the various Yoruba polities), the number of wives of the king varies. In Morocco, King Mohammed VI has broken with tradition and given his wife, Lalla Salma, the title of princess. Prior to the reign of King Mohammed VI, the Moroccan monarchy had no such title. In Thailand, the king and queen must both be of royal descent. The king's other consorts are accorded royal titles that confer status. Other cultures maintain different traditions on queenly status. A Zulu chieftain designates one of his wives as "Great Wife", which would be the equivalent to queen consort.
Some royal consorts from foreign origins have served roles as transfers of culture. Due to their unique position of being reared in one culture and then, when very young, promised into marriage in another land with a different culture, they have served as a cultural bridge between nations. Based on their journals, diaries, and accounts, some exchanged and introduced new forms of art, music, religion, and fashion.[12]
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Royal begums, along with the families of Mughal amirs, were brought over from Kabul to India at the time, "so that men might become settled and be restrained in some measure from departing to a country to which they were accustomed", according to Fazl.[38][clarification needed] Akbar made clear that he would stay in India, reintroducing the historical legacy of the Timurid Renaissance, in contrast to his grandfather and father, who reigned as transient ruleers.[38][43][44]
Akbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.[57] Gujarat had also been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles. In Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler, Sulaiman Khan Karrani. Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in the crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa.[57] Gujarat possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain, an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the busiest seaports of India.[57][60] Akbar intended to link the maritime state with the massive resources of the Indo-Gangetic plains.[61]
Akbar's ostensible casus belli for warring with Gujarat was that the rebel Mirzas, who had previously been driven out of India, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. Moreover, Akbar had received invitations from cliques in Gujarat to oust the reigning king, which further served as justification for his military expedition.[57] In 1572, Akbar moved to occupy Ahmedabad, the capital, and other northern cities, and was proclaimed the lawful sovereign of Gujarat. By 1573, he had driven out the Mirzas who, after offering token resistance, fled for refuge in the Deccan. Surat, the commercial capital of the region, and other coastal cities soon capitulated to the Mughals.[57] The king, Muzaffar Shah III, was caught hiding in a corn field; he was pensioned off by Akbar with a small allowance.[57]
While Akbar was in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, he sought to subjugate the Indus valley to secure the frontier provinces.[66] In 1585, he sent an army to conquer Kashmir in the upper Indus basin after Ali Shah, the reigning king of the Shia Chak dynasty, refused to send his son as a hostage to the Mughal court. Ali Shah surrendered immediately to the Mughals, but another of his sons, Yaqub, crowned himself as king, leading a resistance against the Mughal armies. In June 1589, Akbar travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to receive the surrender of Yaqub and his rebel forces.[66] Baltistan and Ladakh, which were Tibetan provinces adjacent to Kashmir, pledged their allegiance to Akbar.[68] The Mughals also moved to conquer Sindh in the lower Indus valley.
Akbar's government prioritized commercial expansion,[91] encouraging traders, providing protection and security for transactions, and levying a low custom duty to stimulate foreign trade.[citation needed] It also required that local administrators provide restitution to traders for goods stolen while in their territories. To minimise such incidents, bands of highway police called rahdars were enlisted to patrol roads and ensure the safety of traders.[92] Other active measures taken included the construction and protection of routes of commerce and communications.[93] Akbar made concerted efforts to improve roads to facilitate the use of wheeled vehicles through the Khyber Pass, the most popular route frequented by traders and travellers journeying from Kabul into Mughal India.[93] He also strategically occupied the northwestern cities of Multan and Lahore in Punjab and constructed forts, such as the one at Attock near the crossing of the Grand Trunk Road and the Indus river. He also constructed a network of smaller forts called thanas throughout the frontier to secure the overland trade route with Persia and Central Asia.[94] He also established an international trading business for his chief consort, Mariam-uz-Zamani, who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to Gulf nations through merchant's vessels.[95]
Akbar introduced coins with decorative features, including floral motifs, dotted borders, and quatrefoil. The coins were issued in both round and square shapes, including a unique 'mehrab' (lozenge) shaped coin.[96] Akbar's portrait type gold coin (Mohur) is generally attributed to his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir), who had rebelled and then sought reconciliationby minting and presenting his father with gold Mohurs bearing Akbar's portrait.[citation needed] The tolerant view of Akbar is represented by[clarify] the 'Ram-Sita' silver coin.[citation needed] During the latter part of Akbar's reign, coins portrayed the concept of Akbar's newly promoted religion, with the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu types.[citation needed]
Prior to Akbar's reign, marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim kings failed to produce stable relations between the families involved; the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage.[97][98][99] Akbar departed from that practice, providing that the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated equally to his Muslim fathers- and brothers-in-law, except that they would not be allowed to dine or pray with him or take Muslim wives. Akbar also made those Rajputs members of his court. Some Rajputs considered marriage to Akbar a sign of humiliation.[99]
One of the longest-standing disputes between the Safavids and the Mughals pertained to control of the city of Qandahar in the Hindukush region, which formed the border between the two empires.[130] Military strategists of the time considered the region to be militarily significant due to its geography.[131] The city, which was administered by Bairam Khan at the time of Akbar's accession, was invaded and captured by the Persian ruler Husain Mirza, a cousin of Tahmasp I, in 1558.[130] Shortly afterwards, Akbar's army completed its annexation of Kabul, and to further secure the north-western boundaries of his empire, it proceeded to Qandahar. The city capitulated without resistance on 18 April 1595, and the ruler Muzaffar Hussain joined Akbar's court.[132] Subsequent to this, Bairam Khan sent an envoy to the court of Tahmasp I in an effort to maintain peaceful relations with the Safavids. This gesture was reciprocated and a cordial relationship prevailed between the two empires during the remainder of the first two decades of Akbar's reign.[133] The death of Tahmasp I in 1576 resulted in civil war and instability in the Safavid empire, and diplomatic relations between the two empires ceased for more than a decade. They were restored only in 1587 following the accession of Shah Abbas to the Safavid throne.[134] Diplomatic relations continued to be maintained between the Safavid and Mughal courts until the end of Akbar's reign.[135] Qandahar continued to remain in Mughal possession, and the Hindukush was the empire's western frontier for several decades until Shah Jahan's expedition into Badakhshan in 1646.[136]
Akbar firmly entrenched the authority of the Mughal Empire in India and beyond, after it had been threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign,[232] establishing its military and diplomatic superiority.[233] During his reign, he created a secular and liberal government with an emphasis on cultural integration. He also introduced several reforms, including prohibiting sati, legalising widow remarriage, and raising the age of marriage.[citation needed]
"The heavenly reward, was not long in coming... Raja Bihari Mal of Jaipur arrived to seek a military alliance with the Mughals, and in the pledge of his loyalty, offered his eldest daughter in marriage to Akbar. The Emperor, still under the spiritual spell of Ajmer, thought the offer part of some grand design of the Khwaja and accepted it without hesitation... Jodha Bai entered the harem as a Hindu, not as a Muslim. The insistence on conversion was waived at the instance of her father. A small, exquisite temple was built within the four walls of the fort; she went there every morning to pray and also perhaps to underline her identity as a proud Rajput. With a blue-blooded Rajput princess in the harem, there came about a radical change in the style of life in the palace and at the court. Jodha Bai was as good-looking as she was tactful. Warm-hearted liberalism added lustre to her physical charm. Akbar respected her. So did everybody else. Maham Anaga, in particular, became very fond of her. Soon she became the centre around which life in the palace revolved. Akbar often consulted her on important matters; her responses were invariably high-minded and above partisanship. An equation of complete trust gradually developed between the two. The future greatness of Akbar was in no small measure due to the large-heartedness of Jodha Bai. With a lesser person in her place, the story of the reign of Akbar might have been different."[59]
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