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In folklore, a revenant is a spirit or animated corpse that is believed to have been revived from death to haunt the living.[6][7] The word revenant is derived from the Old French word revenant 'returning' (see also the related French verb revenir 'to come back').
Revenants are part of the legend of various cultures, including Celtic and Norse mythology,[8] and stories of supposed revenant visitations were documented by English historians in the Middle Ages.[9]
Archaeologists have found revenant graves throughout Europe, characterized by bodies that had precautions taken to prevent them from rising up and causing mischief for the living, such as stones placed over the legs, stones placed in the jaw so it could not speak, bodies lodged with bricks, or body parts removed. The oldest known graves are as old as 4,000 years BP from the Bronze Age. Roman literature contained writings about revenants, they were common throughout the Middle Ages, and 17th century Poland was reportedly a hot-bed of revenant superstition.[10]
The term "revenant" has been used interchangeably with "ghost" by folklorists.[11] While some maintain that vampires derive from Eastern European folklore and revenants derive from Western European folklore, many assert that revenant is a generic term for the undead.[12]
Augustin Calmet conducted extensive research on the topic in his work titled Trait sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c. (1751) in which he relates the rumors of men at the time:[13] Calmet compares the ideas of the Greek and Egyptian ancients and notes an old belief that magic could not only cause death but also evoke the souls of the deceased as well. Calmet ascribed revenants to sorcerers who sucked the blood of victims and compares instances of revenants mentioned in the twelfth century in England and Denmark as similar to those of Hungary, but "in no history do we read anything so usual or so pronounced, as what is related to us of the vampires of Poland, Hungary, and Moravia."[11][14]
In the folklore and ghost stories of Eastern Scandinavia, Finnish "dead-child beings" are described as revenants animated by restless spirits that could be laid to rest by performing baptism or other religious rites.[15]
Revenant-like beings in Caribbean lore are often referred to as "the soucouyant" or "soucriant" in Dominica, Trinidadian and Guadeloupean folklore, also known as Ole-Higue or Loup-garou elsewhere in the Caribbean.[9]
William wrote that stories of supposed revenants were a "warning to posterity" and so common that, "were I to write down all the instances of this kind which I have ascertained to have befallen in our times, the undertaking would be beyond measure laborious and troublesome."[17] According to William, "It would not be easy to believe that the corpses of the dead should sally (I know not by what agency) from their graves, and should wander about to the terror or destruction of the living, and again return to the tomb, which of its own accord spontaneously opened to receive them, did not frequent examples, occurring in our own times, suffice to establish this fact, to the truth of which there is abundant testimony."[17]
One story involves a man of "evil conduct" absconding from justice, who fled from York and made the ill-fated choice to get married. Becoming jealous of his wife, he hid in the rafters of his bedroom and caught her in an act of infidelity with a local young man, but then accidentally fell to the floor mortally wounding himself, and died a few days later. As Newburgh describes:
A Christian burial, indeed, he received, though unworthy of it; but it did not much benefit him: for issuing, by the handiwork of Satan, from his grave at night-time, and pursued by a pack of dogs with horrible barkings, he wandered through the courts and around the houses while all men made fast their doors, and did not dare to go abroad on any errand whatever from the beginning of the night until the sunrise, for fear of meeting and being beaten black and blue by this vagrant monster.
Thereupon snatching up a spade of but indifferent sharpness of edge, and hastening to the cemetery, they began to dig; and whilst they were thinking that they would have to dig to a greater depth, they suddenly, before much of the earth had been removed, laid bare the corpse, swollen to an enormous corpulence, with its countenance beyond measure turgid and suffused with blood; while the napkin in which it had been wrapped appeared nearly torn to pieces. The young men, however, spurred on by wrath, feared not, and inflicted a wound upon the senseless carcass, out of which incontinently flowed such a stream of blood, that it might have been taken for a leech filled with the blood of many persons. Then, dragging it beyond the village, they speedily constructed a funeral pile; and upon one of them saying that the pestilential body would not burn unless its heart were torn out, the other laid open its side by repeated blows of the blunted spade, and, thrusting in his hand, dragged out the accursed heart. This being torn piecemeal, and the body now consigned to the flames...
In another story Newburgh tells of a woman whose husband recently died. The husband revives from the dead and comes to visit her at night in her bedchamber and he "...not only terrified her on awaking, but nearly crushed her by the insupportable weight of his body." This happens for three nights, and the revenant then repeats these nocturnal visits with other nearby family and neighbours and "...thus become a like serious nuisance," eventually extending his walks in the broad daylight around the village. Eventually the problem was solved by the bishop of Lincoln who wrote a letter of absolution, upon which the man's tomb was opened wherein it was seen his body was still there, the letter was placed on his chest, and the tomb sealed.[18]
the very same day in which they were interred they appeared at evening, while the sun was still up, carrying on their shoulders the wooden coffins in which they had been buried. The whole following night they walked through the paths and fields of the village, now in the shape of men carrying wooden coffins on their shoulders, now in the likeness of bears or dogs or other animals. They spoke to the other peasants, banging on the walls of their houses and shouting "Move quickly, move! Get going! Come!"
The chronicler Walter Map, a Welshman writing during the 12th century, tells of a "wicked man" in Hereford who revived from the dead and wandered the streets of his village at night calling out the names of those who would die of sickness within three days. The response by bishop Gilbert Foliot was "Dig up the body and cut off the head with a spade, sprinkle it with holy water and re-inter it."[20]
Nordic-style revenants appear as barrow wights in Tolkien's Lord of the Rings, and L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter's "The Thing in the Crypt" is essentially a retelling of Grettir's encounter with Kar the Old.
Villagers at the excavated site are thought to have believed that corpses of evil or vengeful individuals were capable of 'reanimating' in the ground and rising from their graves to attack or kill the living
The scientific work, carried out on 11th- to 13th-century human bones from the long-deserted village known as Wharram Percy is particularly important because it appears to confirm historical accounts of such beliefs.
Fearful villagers appear to have deliberately broken the limbs of the dead, probably with stones or hammers. They had then used knives to decapitate the individuals, perhaps to deprive them of sight and thought, and then finally burnt them, probably to destroy at least some of their flesh and therefore make physical resurrection less likely.
It is known that medieval folk belief held that corpses could only reanimate and become revenants in the short period between death and decomposition. Skeletons could not become revenants. Only fully fleshed intact corpses could do so. The head of one of the "revenants" had also been mutilated with a sword or axe.
Whereas the very sparse (and therefore extremely incomplete) English historical record of such cases suggests that virtually all revenants were male and adult, the new scientific analysis reveals that they were in fact of both sexes and all age groups.
Medieval people believed that evil or vengeful individuals could rise from the dead to attack the living and spread disease and death. It was a very real fear when epidemics and sudden death were commonplace and lives were typically much shorter than they are now.
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