Daniel Goleman Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire
Karon Howey
Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined as the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. People with high emotional intelligence can recognize their own emotions and those of others, use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, and adjust emotions to adapt to environments.[1]
Although the term first appeared in 1964,[2] it gained popularity in the 1995 bestselling book Emotional Intelligence by science journalist Daniel Goleman. Goleman defined EI as the array of skills and characteristics that drive leadership performance.[3] Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it is an inborn characteristic.[4]
Various models have been developed to measure EI. In 1987, Keith Beasley used the term Emotional Quotient (EQ) in an article, named after the Intelligence Quotient (IQ).[5] The trait model, developed by Konstantinos V. Petrides in 2001, focuses on self reporting of behavioral dispositions and perceived abilities.[6] The ability model, (Mayeret al., 2023) focuses on the individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social environment.[7] Goleman's original model may now be considered a mixed model that combines what has since been modeled separately as ability EI and trait EI.
Recent research has focused on emotion recognition, which refers to the attribution of emotional states based on observations of visual and auditory nonverbal cues.[8] In addition, neurological studies have sought to characterize the neural mechanisms of emotional intelligence.[9]
Studies show that there is a correlation between people with high EI and positive workplace performance,[10] although no causal relationships have been shown. EI is typically associated with empathy because it involves a person connecting their personal experiences with those of others. Since its popularization in recent decades, methods of developing EI have become sought by people seeking to become more effective leaders.[11]
Criticisms have centered on whether EI is a real intelligence, and whether it has incremental validity over IQ and the Big Five personality traits.[12][13] However, meta-analyses have found that certain measures of EI have validity even when controlling for IQ and personality.[14][15]
The concept of Emotional Strength was introduced by Abraham Maslow in the 1950s.[16] The term "emotional intelligence" seems first to have appeared in a 1964 paper by Michael Beldoch,[17] and in the 1966 paper by B. Leuner titled Emotional Intelligence and Emancipation which appeared in the psychotherapeutic journal Practice of child psychology and child psychiatry.[18]
In 1983, Howard Gardner's Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences[19] introduced the idea that traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ, fail to fully explain cognitive ability. He introduced the idea of multiple intelligences which included both interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations).[20]
Late in 1998, Goleman's Harvard Business Review article entitled "What Makes a Leader?"[3] caught the attention of senior management at Johnson & Johnson's Consumer Companies (JJCC). The article spoke to the importance of Emotional Intelligence (EI) in leadership success, and cited several studies that demonstrated that EI is often the distinguishing factor between great leaders and average leaders. JJCC funded a study which concluded that there was a strong relationship between superior performing leaders and emotional competence, supporting theorists' suggestions that the social, emotional, and relational competency set referred to as Emotional Intelligence is a distinguishing factor in leadership performance.[26]
Emotional intelligence has been defined, by Peter Salovey and John Mayer, as "the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior". This definition was later broken down and refined into four proposed abilities: perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions. These abilities are distinct yet related.[1]
Emotional intelligence also reflects abilities to join intelligence, empathy, and emotions to enhance thought and understanding of interpersonal dynamics.[29] However, substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to both terminology and operationalization. Currently, there are three main models of EI:
Different models of EI have led to the development of various instruments for the assessment of the construct. While some of these measures may overlap, most researchers agree that they tap different constructs.
Specific ability models address the ways in which emotions facilitate thought and understanding. For example, emotions may interact with thinking and allow people to be better decision makers.[29] A person who is more emotionally responsive to crucial issues will attend to the more crucial aspects of their life.[29] The emotional facilitation factor also involves knowing how to include or exclude emotions from thought, depending on the context and situation.[needs copy edit][29] This ability[specify] is related to[vague] emotional reasoning and understanding in response to the people, environment, and circumstances one encounters.[29]
Salovey and Mayer's strive to define EI within the confines of the standard criteria for a new intelligence.[32] Following their continuing research, their initial definition of EI was revised to "The ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth." However, after pursuing further research, their definition of EI evolved into "the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions, to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth."[7]
The ability-based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help one to make sense of and navigate the social environment.[33][34] The model proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to wider cognition. This ability manifests itself in certain adaptive behaviors. The model claims that EI includes four types of abilities:
The ability EI model has been criticized for lacking face and predictive validity in the workplace.[35] However, in terms of construct validity, ability EI tests have great advantage over self-report scales of EI because they compare individual maximal performance to standard performance scales and do not rely on individuals' endorsement of descriptive statements about themselves.[36]
Central to the four-branch model is the idea that EI requires attunement to social norms. Therefore, the MSCEIT is scored in a consensus fashion, with higher scores indicating higher overlap between an individual's answers and those provided by a worldwide sample of respondents. The MSCEIT can also be expert-scored so that the amount of overlap is calculated between an individual's answers and those provided by a group of 21 emotion researchers.[34]
Although promoted as an ability test, the MSCEIT test is unlike standard IQ tests in that its items do not have objectively correct responses. Among other challenges, the consensus scoring criterion means that it is impossible to create items (questions) that only a minority of respondents can solve, because, by definition, responses are deemed emotionally "intelligent" only if the majority of the sample has endorsed them. This and other similar problems have led some cognitive ability experts to question the definition of EI as a genuine intelligence.[38]
In a study by Fllesdal,[39] the MSCEIT test results of 111 business leaders were compared with how their employees described their leader. It was found that there were no correlations between a leader's test results and how he or she was rated by the employees, with regard to empathy, ability to motivate, and leader effectiveness. Fllesdal also criticized the Canadian company Multi-Health Systems, which administers the test. The test contains 141 questions but it was found after publishing the test that 19 of these did not give the expected answers. This has led Multi-Health Systems to remove answers to these 19 questions before scoring but without stating this officially.
Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.[43] Goleman's model of EI has been criticized in the research literature as mere "pop psychology".[29]
Konstantinos V. Petrides proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability-based model and a trait-based model of EI and has been developing the latter over many years in numerous publications.[45][46] Trait EI is "a constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality."[46] In layman's terms, trait EI refers to an individual's self-perceptions of their emotional abilities. This definition of EI encompasses behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities and is measured by self report, as opposed to the ability-based model which refers to actual abilities, which have proven highly resistant to scientific measurement. Trait EI should be investigated within a personality framework.[47] An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional self-efficacy.
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