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Aims. We aim to investigate the extreme variability properties of the TeV blazar S4 0954+65 using optical photometric and polarisation observations carried out between 2017 and 2023 using three ground-based telescopes.
Conclusions. The results of our optical flux, colour, and polarisation study provide hints that turbulence in the relativistic jet could be responsible for the intraday optical variations in the blazar S4 0954+65. However, the long-term flux variations may be caused by changes in the Doppler factor.
Variability timescales in blazars span from years to minutes, indicating a variety of underlying physical processes (e.g. Wagner & Witzel 1995; Pandey et al. 2020b; Pandey & Stalin 2022; Raiteri et al. 2023, and references therein). These emission mechanisms can be intrinsic; for example, the interaction of shocks with turbulent plasma and magnetic reconnection in localised jet regions (e.g. Marscher & Gear 1985; Marscher 2014; Pollack et al. 2016), and/or extrinsic geometrical effects, such as a change in viewing angle and therefore also in the Doppler boosting (e.g. Camenzind & Krockenberger 1992; Raiteri et al. 2017). Polarisation variations are also often observed in blazars on a variety of timescales. Observed variable polarisation provides crucial information about the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field inside the jets. A number of investigations have been carried out of the connections between optical flux and polarisation variations. Authors have observed correlations, anti-correlations, and no correlations between optical flux and PD (e.g. Hagen-Thorn et al. 2002; Jorstad et al. 2006; Pandey et al. 2022; Rajput et al. 2022). It is crucial to investigate the relationship between optical flux and PD variations in order to comprehend how the magnetic field affects blazar jet emission processes.
The paper is structured as follows. Details of the observations and description of the data reduction are given in Sect. 2. The results of our optical photometry and polarimetry study are presented in Sect. 3. A discussion of our results and conclusions is provided in Sect. 4. Finally, we summarise our findings in Sect. 5.
We carried out optical photometric monitoring of the TeV blazar S4 0954+65 from 2017 March 21 to 2023 April 28 using three ground-based optical telescopes in Bulgaria and Spain listed in Table 1. We spent a total of 89 nights observing the blazar, gathering a total of 5005 image frames in the B, V, R, and I optical bands. A detailed log of our optical photometric monitoring is given in Table A.1.
For each of these flaring epochs, we generated the relative SED shown in Fig. 7 in order to investigate the spectral variability. The large uncertainty in the data point corresponding to the B-band in each SED is due to the smaller number of observations in the B-band. The derived optical spectral indices for these periods are listed in Table 3. The spectral indices are comparable within the uncertainties.
The magnetic field almost certainly plays an important role in the flux variability of blazars. To obtain information on the magnetic field, we also performed optical R-band polarimetric observations of S4 0954+65 from 2022 March 15 to 2023 April 28 using the 60 cm telescope at the Belogradchik Observatory (telescope A in Table 1). The log of our polarimetry observations is given in Table 4. We can see fluctuations in both PD and PA despite the noisy and sparse nature of the data on IDV timescales; see Fig. 8. The minimum and maximum values of PD and PA for each night are given in Table 4.
For the nights when we had more than five polarimetry readings, we display both PD and PA with R-band flux (in mJy) in Fig. D.1. We see no obvious correlations or trends between the optical flux and polarisation on IDV timescales. However, this is unsurprising as our IDV polarisation data are sparse and have large error bars.
In the present work, we investigated the physical mechanisms causing the optical flux and polarisation fluctuations of the TeV blazar S4 0954+65 on IDV and LTV timescales. By analysing an extensive IDV data set, we found that the IDV flux and polarisation variations could be explained by the acceleration of the particles in the turbulent medium within the relativistic jet. On LTV timescales, the spectral variability and correlation between optical brightness and PD provided hints that the changes in the spectral index and magnetic field are not the primary factors responsible for the long-term flux variations in S4 0954+65. We discuss the change in the Doppler factor as a possible cause for the LTV variations and estimate the corresponding variations in the viewing angle of the emitting region. However, in order to fully comprehend the long-term flux variations of S4 0954+65, further study employing a multi-wavelength data set is necessary, which will be the subject of our future work.
We studied the flux, colour, and polarisation fluctuations of blazar S4 0954+65 on diverse timescales from 2017 to 2023 using multi-band optical photometry and R-band polarimetry observations. Our key findings are summarised as follows:
We present the results of high time resolution optical photometry of five quiescent soft X-ray transients (SXTs): V404 Cyg, A0620-00, J0422+32, GS 2000+25, and Cen X-4. We detect fast optical variations superposed on the secondary star's double-humped ellipsoidal modulation. The variability resembles typical flare activity and has amplitudes ranging from 0.06 to 0.6 mag. Flares occur on timescales of minutes to a few hours, with no dependency on orbital phase, and contribute 19%-46% to the total veiling observed in the R band. We find that the observed level of flaring activity is veiled by the light of the companion star, and therefore, systems with cool companions (e.g., J0422+32) exhibit stronger variability. After correcting for this dilution, we do not find any correlation between the flaring activity and fundamental system parameters. We find no underlying coherent periods in the data, only quasi-periodic variations ranging between 30 and 90 minutes for the short-period SXTs and longer than 1 hr for V404 Cyg. The power-law index of the power spectra is consistent with what is observed at X-rays wavelengths, i.e., a 1/f distribution, which is compatible with the cellular automaton model. Our observed R'-band luminosities, which are in the range 1031-1033 ergs s-1, are too large to be due to chromospheric activity in the rapidly rotating companions. Since the typical timescale of the flares increases with orbital period, they are most likely produced in the accretion disk. The associated dynamical (Keplerian) timescales suggest that flares are produced at 0.3Rd-0.7Rd. Possible formation mechanisms are magnetic loop reconnection events in the disk or, less likely, optical reprocessing of X-ray flares. In the former scenario, the maximum duration of the flares suggests that the outer disk is responsible for the flare events and so allows us to constrain the sharing timescale to τ(5-6)Ω-1K.
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