Half Life Vox Generator
Hadda Condino
Half-life is defined as the amount of time it takes a given quantity to decrease to half of its initial value. The term is most commonly used in relation to atoms undergoing radioactive decay, but can be used to describe other types of decay, whether exponential or not. One of the most well-known applications of half-life is carbon-14 dating. The half-life of carbon-14 is approximately 5,730 years, and it can be reliably used to measure dates up to around 50,000 years ago. The process of carbon-14 dating was developed by William Libby, and is based on the fact that carbon-14 is constantly being made in the atmosphere. It is incorporated into plants through photosynthesis, and then into animals when they consume plants. The carbon-14 undergoes radioactive decay once the plant or animal dies, and measuring the amount of carbon-14 in a sample conveys information about when the plant or animal died.
A germanium-68/gallium-68 generator is a device used to extract the positron-emitting isotope 68Ga of gallium from a source of decaying germanium-68. The parent isotope 68Ge has a half-life of 271 days and can be easily utilized for in-hospital production of generator produced 68Ga. Its decay product gallium-68 (with a half-life of only 68 minutes, inconvenient for transport) is extracted and used for certain positron emission tomography nuclear medicine diagnostic procedures, where the radioisotope's relatively short half-life and emission of positrons for creation of 3-dimensional PET scans, are useful.
The parent isotope germanium-68 is the longest-lived (271 days) of the radioisotopes of germanium. It has been produced by several methods.[1] In the U.S., it is primarily produced in proton accelerators: At Los Alamos National Laboratory, it may be separated out as a product of proton capture, after proton irradiation of Nb-encapsulated gallium metal.[2] At Brookhaven National Laboratories, 40 MeV proton irradiation of a gallium metal target produces germanium-68 by proton capture and double neutron knockout, from gallium-69 (the most common of two stable isotopes of gallium). This reaction is: 69Ga(p,2n)68Ge.
When loaded with the parent isotope germanium-68, these generators function similarly to technetium-99m generators, in both cases using a process similar to ion chromatography. The stationary phase is either metal-free or alumina, TiO2 or SnO2, onto which germanium-68 is adsorbed. The use of metal-free columns allows direct labeling of 68Ga without prepurification, hence making production of gallium-68-radiolabeled compounds more convenient. The mobile phase is a solvent able to elute (wash out) gallium-68 (III) (68Ga3+) after it has been produced by electron capture decay from the immobilized (absorbed) germanium-68.
Currently, such 68Ga (III) is easily eluted with a few mL of 0.05 M, 0.1 M or 1.0 M hydrochloric acid from generators using metal-free tin dioxide[3] or titanium dioxide adsorbents, respectively, within 1 to 2 minutes. With generators of tin dioxide and titanium dioxide-based adsorbents, there once remained more than an hour of pharmaceutical preparation to attach the gallium-68 (III) as a tracer to the pharmaceutical molecules DOTATOC or DOTA-TATE, so that the total preparation time for the resulting radiopharmaceutical is typically longer than the 68Ga isotope half-life. This fact required that these radiopharmaceuticals be made on-site in most cases, and the on-site generator is required to minimize the time losses. However, new kits such as "NETSPOT" for more rapidly preparing Ga-68 edotreotide or DOTATATE from Ga-68 (III) ions have increased the flexibility of sourcing of this radiopharmaceutical for Ga-68 endocrine receptor (octreotide) scans. With NETSPOT the preparation of the Ga-68 DOTATATE is immediate once the Ga-68 has been acquired from the generator and mixed with the reagent. [4]
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Gold 195m (Au-195m) has a half-life of 30.5 sec and can be produced at the bedside from the parent mercury-195m (T 1/2 = 41.6 hr). The generator produced sterile pyrogen-free Au-195m with mercury breakthrough of 0.75 +/- 0.09 (s.e.m.) muCi per mCi of Au-195m. Approximately 20 to 25 mCi of Au-195m was produced per elution from a generator containing 155 mCi of Hg-195m. We compared first-pass resting Tc-99m angiograms with Au-195m angiograms in 28 patients. The correlation coefficient between the two studies was 0.92 over an ejection-fraction range from 0.22 to 0.83. In addition, we tested the reproducibility of Au-195m first-pass angiograms by performing two studies 3 min apart. In 25 patients with ejection fractions ranging from 0.20 to 0.78, the correlation coefficient between such pairs was 0.93. The nuclide is reliably and reproducibly produced, and its short half-life allows the performance of background-free sequential first-transit studies with unusually low radiation exposure to the patient.
A Cs-137/Ba-137m isotope generator is used to demonstrate the properties of radioactive decay. In this experiment, we investigate and verify the random behavior of radioactive decay and determine the half-life of a radioactive isotope. The half-life of a radioisotope is measured in this experiment. The purpose of this experiment is to determine the half-life of Ba-137m by using several methods and to determine the percent error for each determination. Ba-137m decays by gamma emission (662 keV) with a half-life of 2.6 minutes to the stable Ba-137 element. During elution, Ba-137m is selectively "milked" from the generator, leaving behind the Cs-137 parent. Each generator is supplied with 250 mL of an eluting solution (0.9% NaCl in 0.04M HCl). A Geiger counter interfaced with a computer is used to acquire and record the activity at set time intervals. The half-life of the radioactive isotope Ba-137m is determined by measuring the activity of a sample as it decays. The half-life of Ba-137m, which has been extracted from the radioisotope Cs-137, is detected by using AktivLab. The theoretical half-life of Ba-137m is approximately 2.56 minutes, and the result from the experiment is 2.6 minutes. In summary, a radioisotope generator containing Cs-137 produces Ba-137m, which is extracted in a solution. The Ba-137m has a half-life of about 2.6 minutes as measured during this research.
The DOE Isotope Program (DOE IP) is pleased to announce the availability of radium-224/lead-212 generators. Lead-212 (10.6 hour half-life) and its daughter bismuth-212 (60.6 minute half-life) are of interest in targeted alpha-particle therapy of cancer, including breast and ovarian cancers and melanoma. Research in progress is demonstrating the effectiveness of these isotopes in destroying cancer cells while limiting damage to healthy cells due to specific biological targeting of the isotopes to the cancer cells and the short range of alpha particles in tissue.
In response to the discontinuation of availability of these generators from a private initiative that had attempted to commercialize generator production, the DOE IP initiated the establishment of a production capability at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) through the recovery of thorium-228 from uranium-232. The thorium-228 (1.9 year half-life) serves as a cow for the provision of its decay product radium-224 (3.7 day half-life) which is loaded on a generator from which either lead-212 or bismuth-212 can be eluted. The radium-224 generator, using the same design as the ORNL actinium-225/bismuth-213 generator, has been tested by two researchers with extensive experience in lead-212/bismuth-212 targeted therapy and has been found to perform exceptionally well. The generator (see figures below) is now routinely available for ordering through the National Isotope Development Center catalog. Generators are shipped with instructions for eluting lead-212 and bismuth-212.
Increasing the availability of alpha-emitters for medical research was the highest priority recommendation of the Nuclear Science Advisory Committee's report "Compelling Research Opportunities using Isotopes".
In addition to the routine provision of actinium-225, thorium-227, and radium-223, investing in research on accelerator production of actinium-225, and supporting development and production of astatine-211 at several universities, the production of radium-224/lead-212 generators now provides a pathway for researchers' utilization of all of the most-promising alpha-emitters for therapy of cancer and other diseases.
I want to make a rover that can run all day using the PB-NUK Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (it's this one -NUK_Radioisotope_Thermoelectric_Generator), but I don't understand how it works. I've been searching on the internet for some time, but unfortunately, I didn't find anything useful. Can someone please explain to me how to properly use it? Thanks for your help.
Overall, for gameplay, the RTG is very expensive, and has a poor electricity production-to-mass ratio, but that electrical supply is completely independent of sunlight. As such, they're popular for night-time operations, and operations out near Jool and Eeloo, where solar panels diminish to near-uselessness because of how far from Kerbol you are.
Thanks for the help, I always thought it produced more EC and didn't understand why my rovers didn't really work as good as I expected. BTW I play sandbox , so I don't have to worry about being restricted with parts and/ or loosing all the money because I am able mess up literally anything. Also, I will check the mod because it looks interesting.
For some more detailed information, the RTG works in the code by having electrical output but requiring no input; it just creates ElectricCharge from nothing. As far as how to use it, it has nodes at the round ends and it also surface attaches, so it can go anywhere on your rover. Just stick it on and it will work. It is heavier than every stock solar panel but the Gigantor, and its power-to-mass ratio is the worst of any electrical part. It's extremely expensive--though you play sandbox so that's not a problem for you--but the point is that the comparatively free power is the only advantage of an RTG over other generators.
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