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The iconography of Surya is often depicted riding a chariot harnessed by horses, often seven in number[2] which represent the seven colours of visible light, and the seven days of the week.[9][12] During the medieval period, Surya was worshipped in tandem with Brahma during the day, Shiva at noon, and Vishnu in the evening.[9][13] In some ancient texts and art, Surya is presented syncretically with Indra, Ganesha, and others.[9][12] Surya as a deity is also found in the arts and literature of Buddhism and Jainism. In the Mahabharata and Ramayana, Surya is represented as the spiritual father of Rama and Karna (protagonists of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, respectively). Surya was a primary deity in veneration by the characters of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, along with Shiva.[14][15]
Surya is depicted with a Chakra, also interpreted as Dharmachakra. Surya is the lord of Simha (Leo), one of the twelve constellations in the zodiac system of Hindu astrology. Surya or Ravi is the basis of Ravivara, or Sunday, in the Hindu calendar.[16] Major festivals and pilgrimages in reverence for Surya include Makar Sankranti, Pongal, Samba Dashami, Ratha Saptami, Chath puja, and Kumbha Mela.[17][18][19]
Having survived as a primary deity in Hinduism longer than any most of the original Vedic deities, the worship of Surya declined greatly around the 13th century, perhaps as a result of the Muslim destruction of Sun temples in North India. New Sun temples virtually ceased to be built, and some were later repurposed to a different deity. A number of important Surya temples remain, but most are no longer in worship. In certain aspects, Surya has tended to be merged with the prominent deities of Vishnu or Shiva, or seen as subsidiary to them.[20]
The oldest surviving Vedic hymns, such as the hymn 1.115 of the Rigveda, mention Sūrya with particular reverence for the "rising sun" and its symbolism as dispeller of darkness, one who empowers knowledge, the good and all life.[23][24] However, the usage is context specific. In some hymns, the word Surya simply means Sun as an inanimate object, a stone or a gem in the sky (Rigvedic hymns 5.47, 6.51 and 7.63); while in others it refers to a personified deity.[25][24]Surya is prominently associated with the dawn goddess Ushas and sometimes, he is mentioned as her son or her husband.[26]
The Vedas assert Sun (Surya) to be the creator of the material universe (Prakriti).[28] In the layers of Vedic texts, Surya is one of the several trinities along with Agni and either Vayu or Indra, which are presented as an equivalent icon and aspect of the Hindu metaphysical concept called the Brahman.[29]
In the Brahmanas layer of Vedic literature, Surya appears with Agni (fire god) in the same hymns.[30] Surya is revered for the day, while Agni for its role during the night.[30] The idea evolves, states Kapila Vatsyayan, where Surya is stated to be Agni as the first principle and the seed of the universe.[31] It is in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas,[32][33] and the Upanishads that Surya is explicitly linked to the power of sight, to visual perception and knowledge. He is then interiorized to be the eye as ancient Hindu sages suggested abandonment of external rituals to gods in favor of internal reflections and meditation of gods within, in one's journey to realize the Atman (soul, self) within, in texts such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Kaushitaki Upanishad and others.[34][35][36]
Surya in Indian literature is referred to by various names, which typically represent different aspects or phenomenological characteristics of the Sun. The figure of Surya as we know him today is an amalgamation of various different Rigvedic deities.[37] Thus, Savitr refers to one that rises and sets, Aditya means one with splendor, Mitra refers to Sun as "the great luminous friend of all mankind",[38] while Pushan refers to Sun as illuminator that helped the Devas win over Asuras who use darkness.[39] Arka, Mitra, Vivasvat, Aditya, Tapan, Ravi and Surya have different characteristics in early mythologies, but by the time of the epics they are synonymous.[39]
Vivasvat, also known as Vivasvant,[41] is also one such of these deities. His wife is Saranyu, daughter of Tvashtar. His sons include the Ashvins, Yama, and Manu. Through Manu, Vivasvat is considered an ancestor of humanity. Vivasvat is affiliated with Agni and Matarishvan, with Agni being stated to have been first revealed to those two. Vivasvat is also variously related to Indra, Soma, and Varuna. Vivasvant is also used as an adjective of Agni and Ushas to mean "brilliant". Already by the time of his earliest appearance (the Rigveda), Vivasvat had declined in importance. He was likely a solar deity, but scholars debate his specific role as one.[42] In the Rigveda, Indra drinks Soma alongside Manu Vivasvat and Trita.[42] In post-Vedic literature, Vivasvat further declines in importance, and is merely another name for the sun.[42] He is cognate to the Avestan Vivanhvant, who is the father of Yima (cognate to Yama) and Manu.[42][43]
The Mahabharata epic opens its chapter on Surya that reverentially calls him as the "eye of the universe, soul of all existence, origin of all life, goal of the Samkhyas and Yogis, and symbolism for freedom and spiritual emancipation.[24]
In the Mahabharata, Karna is the son of Surya and unmarried princess Kunti.[24] The epic describes Kunti's trauma as an unmarried mother, then abandonment of Karna, followed by her lifelong grief. Baby Karna is found and adopted by a charioteer but he grows up to become the greatest warrior and one of the central heroes of the great war of Kurukshetra.[44]
Earliest representations of Surya riding a chariot occur in the Buddhist railings of the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya (2nd century BCE), in the Bhaja Caves (1st century BCE), and the Jain cave of Ananta Gumpha in Khandagiri (1st century CE).[46] They follow similar depiction of the chariot-riding god Helios of Hellenistic mythology, as appearing for example on the coinage of Greco-Bactrian kings, such as Plato I.[45]
The iconography of Surya has varied over time. In some ancient arts, particularly from the early centuries of the common era, his iconography is similar to those found in Persia and Greece suggesting likely adoption of Greek, Iranian and Scythian influences.[48][24]After the Greek and Kushan influences arrived in ancient India, some Surya icons of the period that followed show him wearing a cloak and high boots.[49][50]In some Buddhist artwork, his chariot is shown as being pulled by four horses.[14] The doors of Buddhist monasteries of Nepal show him, along with the Chandra (moon god), symbolically with Surya depicted as a red circle with rays.[51]
In Hindu context, the sun-god only appears at a later period, as in the Virūpākṣa temple in Paṭṭadakal (8th century CE).[45] The iconography of Surya in Hinduism varies with its texts. He is typically shown as a resplendent standing person holding a lotus flower in both hands, riding a chariot pulled by one or more horses typically seven.[52]The seven horses are named after the seven meters of Sanskrit prosody: Gayatri, Brihati, Ushnih, Jagati, Trishtubha, Anushtubha and Pankti.
Aniconic symbols of Surya include the Swastika and the ring-stone.[49] In various texts including Mahabharata, Suryasataka, or Prasasti of Vatsabhatti, Surya is depicted as being worshipped by a host of semi-divine beings. These beings, namely Siddhas, Charanas, Gandharvas, Yaksas, Guhyakas, and the Nagas, desirous of obtaining boons, follow the course of Surya's chariot through the sky.[57]
Surya as an important heavenly body appears in various Indian astronomical texts in Sanskrit, such as the 5th century Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata, the 6th century Romaka by Latadeva and Panca Siddhantika by Varahamihira, the 7th century Khandakhadyaka by Brahmagupta and the 8th century Sisyadhivrddida by Lalla.[58]These texts present Surya and various planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion.[58] Other texts such as Surya Siddhanta dated to have been complete sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets with deity mythologies.[58]
The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions, present Surya- and planets-based calculation and its relative motion to earth. These vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives.[59][58][60] For example, the 10th century BCE Hindu scholars had estimated the sidereal length of a year as follows, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results:[61]
Surya is a part of the Navagraha in Hindu zodiac system. The role and importance of the Navagraha developed over time with various influences. Deifying the sun and its astrological significance occurred as early as the Vedic period and was recorded in the Vedas. The earliest work of astrology recorded in India is the Vedanga Jyotisha which began to be compiled in the 14th century BCE. It was possibly based on works from the Indus Valley Civilization as well as various foreign influences.[63] Babylonian astrology was the first to develop astrology and the calendar, and was adopted by multiple civilizations including India.[64][65]
The Navagraha developed from early works of astrology over time. The Sun and various classical planets were referenced in the Atharvaveda around 1000 BCE. The Navagraha was furthered by additional contributions from Western Asia, including Zoroastrian and Hellenistic influences.[66] The Yavanajataka, or 'Science of the Yavanas', was written by the Indo-Greek named "Yavanesvara" ("Lord of the Greeks") under the rule of the Western Kshatrapa king Rudrakarman I. The Yavanajataka written in 120 BCE is often attributed to standardizing Indian astrology. The Navagraha would further develop and culminate in the Shaka era with the Saka, or Scythian, people.
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