Re: Download Art Of War 2 Liberation Of Peru Cracked
Towanda Tuning
The Peruvian War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia del Per) was a series of military conflicts in Peru from 1809 to 1826 that resulted in the country's independence from the Spanish Empire. Part of the broader Spanish American wars of independence, it led to the dissolution of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru.
Viceroy Jos Fernando de Abascal y Sousa made Peru a base for counterrevolution and won military victories in the south frontier in 1809, in La Paz revolution and 1811 in the Battle of Guaqui. The first autonomous Peruvian rebellions arose in 1811 in the context of indigenous discontent and Creole collaboration with the May Revolution. The Peruvian insurgency put the interior of the country in rebellion, although the multiple uprisings of the Tacna, Hunuco, Huamanga, Cuzco, Apurimac and others did not achieve freedom for the country. However, the guerrilla and montoneras movements were maintained upon the arrival of the liberating forces.
In 1820, the Great Overseas Expedition rebellion made the threat of invasion in the Ro de la Plata and Venezuela disappear and made the arrival of the liberating forces in Peru possible. The Liberating Expedition of Peru, under the command of Argentine General Jos de San Martn, landed on the Peruvian coast from Chile. The royalty abandoned Lima, fortified themselves in Cusco, and General San Martn proclaimed the independence of the Peruvian State on 28 July 1821. Under his Protectorate, the first Constituent Congress of the country was formed. With the stalemate of the conflict and the disappointing Guayaquil Conference with the Liberator Simn Bolvar, San Martn was forced to withdraw from Peru. The young republic was waging a war against the royalist strongholds in the interior of the country with an uncertain outcome. This situation led to the arrival of liberating forces from the north to Peru and of Simn Bolvar, who took over control of the United Liberation Army of Peru.
The fighting continued with the definitive defeat of the Spanish Army in 1824 in the battles of Junn and Ayacucho and culminating in 1826 with the Siege of Callao.[1] Consistent with the independence of Peru, in April 1825, the Sucre campaign in Upper Peru ended and, in November of that same year, the Spanish castle of San Juan de Ula in Veracruz surrendered to Mexico. Finally, in January 1826, the Spanish strongholds of Callao and Chilo fell. Spain renounced all its American continental domains in 1836.
The results of Independence were varied: politically, the dependence on Spain was cut off; economically, the dependence on Europe was maintained, and socially, the removal of indigenous lands was accentuated in the republican era. Indigenous domestic workers were treated inhumanely, even in the first decades of the 20th century. They received citizenship at the birth of the republic, on 27 August 1821.[citation needed]
The struggle for independence in 18th and 19th century Peru was a complex and multifaceted process, marked by indigenous uprisings, colonial resistance, and the emergence of strong regional identities. Against the backdrop of Spanish colonial rule, women found themselves thrust into positions of leadership and responsibility within their households as husbands fled or were absent. This period of turmoil and change not only reshaped the socio-political landscape of Peru but also underscored the resilience and adaptability of its people, particularly women, in navigating the tumultuous path towards independence. By examining the intersecting narratives of colonial resistance, indigenous uprisings, and the evolving roles of women, we gain a deeper understanding of the dynamic forces at play in Peru's quest for autonomy and self-determination.[2]
In the 18th century, amidst early attempts for independence from Spanish colonial rule in Peru, women faced the challenge of assuming leadership roles within their households due to the absence or flight of their husbands. As indigenous uprisings and rebellions against colonial authority erupted, women found themselves navigating newfound autonomy and responsibilities, managing finances and familial affairs independently. Despite the unrest and discontent, exacerbated by Bourbon Reforms and the Rebellion of Tpac Amaru II, Peru remained strongly royalist during the Peninsular War, with the viceroy Jos Fernando de Abascal y Sousa suppressing uprisings and annexing Upper Peru to the viceroyalty. Ultimately, Peru's journey towards independence, marked by the campaigns of Jos de San Martn and Simn Bolvar, intertwined with the resilience and adaptability of women in navigating the tumultuous socio-political landscape of colonial Peru.[3]
Some of the early Spanish conquistadors who explored Peru made the first attempts for independence from the Spanish crown. They tried to liberate themselves from the Viceroyalty, who governed on behalf of the king of Castile. Throughout the eighteenth century, there were several indigenous uprisings against colonial rule and their treatment by the colonial authorities. Some of these uprisings became true rebellions. The Bourbon Reforms increased the unease, and the dissent had its outbreak in the Rebellion of Tpac Amaru II which was repressed, but the root cause of the discontent of the indigenous people remained dormant. It is debated whether these movements should be considered as precedents of the emancipation that was led by chiefs (caudillos), Peruvian towns (pueblos), and other countries in the American continent.
The independence of Peru was an important chapter in the Hispano-American wars of independence. The campaign of Sucre in Upper Peru concluded in April 1825, and in November of the same year Mexico obtained the surrender of the Spanish bastion of San Juan de Ula in North America. The Spanish strongholds in Callao and Chilo in South America fell in January 1826. Spain renounced all their continental American territories ten years later in 1836 leaving very little of its vast empire intact.
Despite the royalist tendencies of Upper Peru and overall lack of political unrest from the general public between the end of the Rebellion of Tpac Amaru II (which ended in 1783) and 1808,[5] junta movements did emerge. Within this period, divisions between Upper Peru and Southern Peru were evident, especially through the mining industry within the country, with the South overall suffering economically due to discrimination which ultimately provoked bitter protest from mining deputies of Southern Peru in 1804.[6] This was evidently the start of unrest and uprising of the junta movements between the divided country which caused royalist officials to become more aware and cautious of Cuzco and the southern parts of Per as a whole. Political unrest amped up after the crumbling of the Peruvian government structure, and after being effected by the collapse of monarchy within Spain, the country that colonized Peru, in 1808. Between 1809 and 1814, arguably the timeframe of the major junta movements and protests, Cuzco and the southern provinces of Peru were administratively and politically unstable, as expected from a country whose government is going through a general crisis. This time frame has been characterized by uncertainty and overall confusing after the implementation of the Junta Central and the Council of Regency, efforts made by the then newly monarch-less and overruling Spain.
The first significant attempt of an armed rebellion was in June 1811 in the southern city of Tacna led by Francisco Antonio de Zela. Though this rebellion was more personal, as it had to do with a direct issue Antonio de Zela faced, it demonstrated the desire in the southern region of Peru to reunite with Upper Peru. This movement also proved that those who rebelled in the provinces of southern Peru were much closer with one another, regardless of socioeconomic status, race, or ethnicity than those in Upper Peru (specifically Lima). This was significant due to the divisions between citizens due to features such as race and background and that though there may have been tensions between the groups, their common belief that Peru should be independent from Spanish-ruling overpowered all other differences they may have had.
Another significant movement, led by natives in Hunuco, began on 22 February 1812. This movement was partially initiated by the motives of Juan Jose Castelli within the First Upper Peru Campaign. It was also begun as a protest against the corruption within local governments which illegally implemented a policy that disadvantaged indigenous merchants in the area. The rebellion lasted three months, ending in May 1812, was, like the Tacna movement, united more citizens in southern Peru of different backgrounds and proved the anti-peninsular beliefs of rebels a part of the junta movements. It involved various leaders, including curacas and township magistrates (alcaldes pedneos), but was suppressed within a few weeks.
The rebellion began in a confrontation between the Constitutional Cabildo and the Audiencia of Cuzco, made up of officeholders and Europeans, over the administration of the city and spread much more rapidly than any prior movement. Cabildo officials and their allies were arrested by the Audiencia. Seemingly a culmination of the prior rebellions, the motives of the 1814 movement declared by the main leaders included the struggle for power (specifically independent power from Spain), the disapproval of Fernando VII and the lack of application of promised reforms by the Audiencia. Criollo leaders appealed to retired brigadier Mateo Pumacahua, then in his 70s, who was curaca of Chinchero, and decades earlier had been instrumental in suppressing the Rebellion of Tpac Amaru II. This was monumental as Pumacahua changed his beliefs for the national cause, something he was against when rebelling against Tpac Amaru II's similar stance in the Rebellion of Tpac Amaru II earlier. The rebellion continued to move their efforts towards Lima and Upper Peru to inspire and spread attention to the public[7] and officials opposed to their beliefs. This movement also made note of the uselessness of the position of viceroyalty as a whole, though specifically in Upper Peru where it was the center of Royalist reaction[8] Pumacahua joined the Criollo leaders in forming a junta on 3 August in Cuzco, which demanded the complete implementation of the liberal reforms of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. After some victories in southern Peru and Upper Peru, the rebellion was squashed by mid-1815 when a combined strength of royal forces and loyal curacas, among which were the Catacora and Apo Cari took Cuzco and executed Pumacahua.[9]
b1e95dc632