Pronunciation Dictionary Oxford
Helen Francke
The broad approach to transcription is accompanied by a selective approach to variant pronunciations. For example, the transcriptions make clear that the vowel /ɒ/ occurs only in British English, with American pronunciations usually having /ɔː/ or /ɑː/ instead. For these words there is some variation between /ɔː/ and /ɑː/ among speakers of American English, but only one such pronunciation is given.
Further information about a pronunciation may be given in square brackets [ˈlaɪk ˈɪs], referring more specifically to sounds on the IPA chart. This narrow transcription is useful for representing pronunciations or sounds that are not British or American, for example the East African pronunciation [ˈboma] given at boma.
Allophones can be demonstrated by looking at the /t/ phoneme. In addition to [t], the /t/ phoneme also contains tap [ɾ] and glottal stop [ʔ] sounds, which are used in certain contexts. The [ɾ] tap sound is very much like the /d/ in rider. It is widely used by American speakers when the /t/ is between two vowels and the second vowel is not stressed, as in writer. Both British and American speakers sometimes use the glottal stop [ʔ] (a momentary tight closure of the vocal cords) for the /t/ in words like football /ˈfʊtbɔːl/ and button /ˈbʌtn/. Use of the glottal stop for /t/ in these positions is more common and more widely accepted than its use between vowels, as in water.
Such considerations are not limited to the /t/ phoneme. For example, the /l/ phoneme encompasses a clear [l] sound for words such as like /laɪk/ (where the /l/ is before or between vowels) and a dark [ɫ] sound for other positions, as in full /fʊl/ or milk /mɪlk/. The sound files that accompany our phonemic transcriptions are intended to supplement the phonemic transcriptions and demonstrate such detail.
Some pronunciations are labelled as strong or weak forms. The first pronunciation given usually represents the one most commonly used, but where a strong form is indicated it should be used when the word is stressed. A strong form is also usually used when the word is at the end of a sentence. For example:
Longer transcriptions may have one or more secondary stresses before the main stress. These are marked with /ˌ/ as in abbreviation /əˌbriːviˈeɪʃn/ and agricultural /ˌɡrɪˈkʌltʃərəl/. They feel like beats in a rhythm leading up to the main stress. Weak stresses after the main stress can sometimes be heard, but they are not marked in our dictionaries.
A word or compound that has two stresses in its dictionary form may show a shift of stress when used in a phrase. For example, the adjective ˌwell-ˈknown has the main stress on known, but in the phrase ˌwell-known ˈauthor the main stress is shifted to the noun that follows.
This dictionary is the first comprehensive description of Shakespearean original pronunciation (OP), enabling practitioners to answer any queries about the pronunciation of individual words. It includes all the words in the First Folio, transcribed using IPA, and provides sound files as an additional aid to pronunciation. It details the main pronunciation evidence in the texts, notably all spelling variants and rhymes. An extensive introduction provides a full account of the aims, evidence, history, and current use of OP in relation to Shakespeare productions as well as other uses. It is an invaluable resource for producers, directors, actors, and others wishing to present Shakespeare's plays or poetry in original pronunciation, as well as for students and academics in the fields of literary criticism and Shakespeare studies more generally.
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Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard and most prestigious form of spoken British English.[1][2] For over a century, there has been argument over such questions as the definition of RP, whether it is geographically neutral, how many speakers there are, the nature and classification of its sub-varieties, how appropriate a choice it is as a standard, and how the accent has changed over time.[3] The name too is controversial. RP is an accent, so the study of RP is concerned only with matters of pronunciation, while other areas relevant to the study of language standards, such as vocabulary, grammar, and style, are not considered.
The introduction of the term Received Pronunciation is usually credited to the British phonetician Daniel Jones. In the first edition of the English Pronouncing Dictionary (1917), he named the accent "Public School Pronunciation"; for the second edition in 1926 he wrote: "In what follows I call it Received Pronunciation, for want of a better term."[4] However, the term had been used much earlier by P. S. Du Ponceau in 1818[5] and the Oxford English Dictionary cites quotations back to about 1710.[6] A similar term, received standard, was coined by Henry C. K. Wyld in 1927.[7] The early phonetician Alexander John Ellis used both terms interchangeably, but with a much broader definition than Jones's, saying, "There is no such thing as a uniform educated pron. of English, and rp. and rs. is a variable quantity differing from individual to individual, although all its varieties are 'received', understood and mainly unnoticed".[8]
Although a form of Standard English had been established in the City of London by the end of the 15th century, it did not begin to resemble RP until the late 19th century.[9][10] RP has most in common with the dialects of what has been termed the South East Midlands, in particular the Golden Triangle of universities, namely London, Oxford and Cambridge, and the public schools that fed them, such as Eton, Harrow and Rugby.[11] In 1922, the BBC selected RP as its broadcasting standard, citing its being widely understood globally as a reason.[11]
According to Fowler's Modern English Usage (1965), "the correct term is 'the Received Pronunciation'. The word 'received' conveys its original meaning of 'accepted' or 'approved', as in 'received wisdom'."[12]
Some linguists have used the term "RP" while expressing reservations about its suitability.[13][14][15] The Cambridge-published English Pronouncing Dictionary (aimed at those learning English as a foreign language) uses the phrase "BBC Pronunciation", on the basis that the name "Received Pronunciation" is "archaic" and that BBC News presenters no longer suggest high social class and privilege to their listeners.[16] Other writers have also used the name "BBC Pronunciation".[17][18] The term 'The Queen's English' has also been used by some writers.[11]
The phonetician Jack Windsor Lewis frequently criticised the name "Received Pronunciation" in his blog: he has called it "invidious",[19] a "ridiculously archaic, parochial and question-begging term"[20] and noted that American scholars find the term "quite curious".[21] He used the term "General British" (to parallel "General American") in his 1970s publication of A Concise Pronouncing Dictionary of American and British English[22] and in subsequent publications.[23] The name "General British" is adopted in the latest revision of Gimson's Pronunciation of English.[24] Beverley Collins and Inger Mees use the term "Non-Regional Pronunciation" for what is often otherwise called RP, and reserve the term "Received Pronunciation" for the "upper-class speech of the twentieth century".[25] Received Pronunciation has sometimes been called "Oxford English", as it used to be the accent of most members of the University of Oxford.[11] The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association uses the name "Standard Southern British". Page 4 reads:
Standard Southern British (where 'Standard' should not be taken as implying a value judgment of 'correctness') is the modern equivalent of what has been called 'Received Pronunciation' ('RP'). It is an accent of the south east of England which operates as a prestige norm there and (to varying degrees) in other parts of the British Isles and beyond.[26]
In her book Kipling's English History (1974) Marghanita Laski refers to this accent as "gentry". "What the Producer and I tried to do was to have each poem spoken in the dialect that was, so far as we could tell, ringing in Kipling's ears when he wrote it. Sometimes the dialect is most appropriately, Gentry. More often, it isn't."[27]
Traditionally, Received Pronunciation has been associated with high social class. It was the "everyday speech in the families of Southern English persons whose men-folk [had] been educated at the great public boarding-schools"[33] and which conveyed no information about that speaker's region of origin before attending the school. An 1891 teacher's handbook stated, "It is the business of educated people to speak so that no-one may be able to tell in what county their childhood was passed".[34] Nevertheless, in the 19th century some British prime ministers, such as William Ewart Gladstone, still spoke with some regional features.[35]
Opinions differ over the proportion of Britons who speak RP. Trudgill estimated 3% in 1974,[36] but that rough estimate has been questioned by J. Windsor Lewis.[37] Upton notes higher estimates of 5% (Romaine, 2000) and 10% (Wells, 1982) but refers to these as "guesstimates" not based on robust research.[38]
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