A Level Physics Roger Muncaster Pdf Free Download
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Hippocrates of Chios (c. 430 B.C.), the discoverer of the squareof a lune, showed that the problem reduced to the determinationof two mean proportionals between two given lines, one of thembeing twice the length of the other. Algebraically expressed,if x and y be the required mean proportionals and a, 2a, the lines,we have a : x :: x : y :: y : 2a, from which it follows that x = 2a.Although Hippocrates could not determine the proportionals,his statement of the problem in this form was a great advance,for it was perceived that the problem of trisecting an angle wasreducible to a similar form which, in the language of algebraicgeometry, is to solve geometrically a cubic equation. Accordingto Proclus, a man named Hippias, probably Hippias of Elis(c. 460 B.C.), trisected an angle with a mechanical curve, namedthe quadratrix (q.v.). Archytas of Tarentum (c. 430 B.C.) solvedthe problems by means of sections of a half cylinder; accordingto Eutocius, Menaechmus solved them by means of the intersectionsof conic sections; and Eudoxus also gave a solution.
A closely allied species, Piper Clusii, produces the Africancubebs or West African black-pepper, the berry of which issmoother than that of common cubebs and usually has a curvedpedicel. In the 14th century it was imported into Europe fromthe Grain Coast, under the name of pepper, by merchants ofRouen and Lippe.
CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM (1785-1861), English engineer, wasborn in 1785 at Dilham in Norfolk, where his father was amiller. After serving an apprenticeship of four years (1800-1804)as a joiner and cabinetmaker at Stalham, he became associatedwith an agricultural-machine maker, named Cook, who residedat Swanton. In 1807 he patented self-regulating sails for windmills,and in 1812 he entered the works of Messrs Ransomeof Ipswich, where he soon became chief engineer, and ultimatelya partner. Meanwhile, the subject of the employment of criminalshad been much in his thoughts; and the result was his introductionof the treadmill about 1818. In 1826 he removed to London,where he gained a very large practice as a civil engineer. Amonghis works were the Oxford canal, the Birmingham & LiverpoolJunction Canal, the improvement of the river Severn, the Butedocks at Cardiff, the Black Sluice drainage and its outfall sluiceat Boston harbour, the Middlesborough docks and coal dropsin the Tees, and the South-Eastern railway, of which he waschief engineer. The Hanoverian government consulted himabout the harbour and docks at Harburg; the water-worksof the city of Berlin were constructed under his immediatesuperintendence; he was asked to report on the constructionof the Paris & Lyons railway; and he was consulting engineerfor the line from Boulogne to Amiens. Among his later workswere two floating landing stages at Liverpool, and the bridgefor carrying the London turnpike across the Medway at Rochester.In 1851, when he was president of the Institution of CivilEngineers, he was knighted for his services in connexion with thebuildings erected in Hyde Park for the exhibition of that year.608He retired from active work in 1858, and died on the 13th ofOctober 1861 at his house on Clapham Common, London.His son, Joseph Cubitt (1811-1872), was trained under him,and was engineer of various railways, including the GreatNorthern, London, Chatham & Dover, and part of the London& South-Western.
There are some other considerations to be urged. For instance,Herr Braune, a forester at Greiz in the principality of Reuss(Naumannia, tom. cit. pp. 307, 313), shot a hen cuckoo as shewas leaving the nest of an icterine warbler (Hypolais icterina).In the oviduct of this cuckoo he found an egg coloured very likethat of the warbler, and on looking into the nest he foundthere an exactly similar egg, which there can be no reasonabledoubt had just been laid by that very cuckoo. Moreover, HerrGrunack (Journ. fr Orn., 1873, p. 454) afterwards found oneof the most abnormally coloured specimens, quite unlike theordinary egg of the cuckoo, to contain an embryo so fullyformed as to show the characteristic zygodactyl feet of the bird,thus proving unquestionably its parentage.
CUCKOO-SPIT, a frothy secretion found upon plants, andproduced by the immature nymphal stage of various plant-liceof the familiar Cercopidae and Jassidae, belonging to the homopterousdivision of the Hemiptera, which in the adult conditionare sometimes called frog-hoppers.
1. The former are large-leaved strong-growing plants, notsuited to outdoor culture, with long smooth-rinded fruit; thereare many excellent varieties such as Telegraph, Sion House,duke of Edinburgh, &c. The plants are grown in a hot-bedwhich is prepared towards the end of February from rich stablemanure, leaves, &c. A rich turfy loam with a little well-decomposedstable manure forms a good soil. The seeds are sownsingly in rich, sandy soil in small pots early in February andplunged in a bottom heat. After they have made one or twofoliage-leaves the seedlings are transferred to larger pots, andultimately about the middle of March to the hot-bed. Eachplant is placed in the centre of a mound of soil about a foot deepand well watered with tepid water. The plants should be wellwatered during their growing period, and the foliage sprinkledor syringed two or three times a day. In bright sunshine theplants are lightly shaded. When grown in frames the tops ofthe main stems are pinched off when the stems are about 2 ft.long; this causes the development of side shoots on which fruitsare borne. When these have produced one or two fruits, they arealso stopped at the joint beyond the fruit. When grown in greenhousesthe vines may be allowed to reach the full length ofthe house before they are stopped. To keep the fruits straightthey may be grown in cylindrical glass tubes about a foot long,or along narrow wooden troughs. If seeds are required one ormore female flowers should be selected and pollen from maleflower placed on their stigmas.
2. The outdoor varieties are known as hill or ridge cucumbers.They may be grown in any good soil. A warm, sheltered spot witha south aspect and a mound of rich, sandy loam with a little leaf-mouldplaced over a hot-bed of dung and leaves is recommended.The mounds or ridges should be 4 to 5 ft. apart, and one plantis placed in the centre of each. The seeds are sown in Marchin light, rich soil in small pots with gentle heat. The seedlingsare repotted and well hardened for planting out in June. Theplants must be well watered in and, until established, shaded bya hand-light from bright sunshine. When the leading shoots arefrom 1 to 2 ft. long the tips are pinched off to induce the formationof fruit-bearing side-shoots. If seed is required a pistillate611flower is selected and pollinated. There are numerous varietiesdistinguished by size and the smooth or prickly rind. King ofthe Ridge has smooth fruits a foot or more long; gherkin, ashort, prickly form, is much used for pickling.
Cucumbers were much esteemed by the ancients. Accordingto Pliny, the emperor Tiberius was supplied with them daily,both in summer and winter. The kishuim or cucumbers of thescriptures (Num. xi. 5; Isa. i. 8) were probably a wild form ofC. Melo, the melon, a plant common in Egypt, where a drinkis prepared from the ripe fruit. Peter Forskl, one of the earlybotanical writers on the country, describes its preparation.The pulp is broken and stirred by means of a stick thrust througha hole cut at the umbilicus of the fruit; the hole is then closedwith wax, and the fruit, without removing it from its stem,is buried in a little pit; after some days the pulp is found tobe converted into an agreeable liquor (see Flora aegyptiaco-arabica,p. 168, 1775). The squirting cucumber, EcballiumElaterium, the Σίκυος ἄγριος of Theophrastus, furnishes the drugelaterium (q.v.).
CUCURBITACEAE, a botanical order of dicotyledons, containing87 genera and about 650 species, found in the temperateand warmer parts of the earth but especially developed in thetropics. The plants are generally annual herbs, climbing bymeans of tendrils and having a rapid growth. The long-stalkedleaves are arranged alternately, and are generally palmatelylobed and veined. The flowers or inflorescences are borne inthe leaf-axils, in which a vegetative bud is also found, and atthe side of the leaf-stalk is a simple or branched tendril. Therehas been much difference of opinion as to what member ormembers the tendril represents; the one which seems most inaccordance with facts regards the tendril as a shoot, the lowerportion representing the stem, the upper twining portion a leaf.The flowers are unisexual, and strikingly epigynous, the perianthand stamens being attached to a bell-shaped prolongation of thereceptacle above the ovary. The five narrow pointed sepalsare followed by five petals which are generally united to forma more or less bell-shaped corolla. There are five stamens inthe male flowers; the anthers open towards the outside, areone-celled, with the pollen-sacs generally curved and variouslyunited. The carpels, normally three in number, form an ovarywith three thick, fleshy, bifid placentas bearing a large numberof ovules on each side, and generally filling the interior of theovary with a juicy mass. The short thick style has generallythree branches each bearing a fleshy, usually forked stigma. Thefruit is a fleshy many-seeded berry with a tough rind (known asa pepo), and often attains considerable size. The embryocompletely fills the seed.
CUDDAPAH, a town and district of British India, in theMadras Presidency. The town is 6 m. from the right bank ofthe river Pennar, and 161 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901)16,432. It is now a poor place, but has some trade in cotton andindigo, and manufactures of cotton cloth. Hills surround iton three sides, and it has a bad reputation for unhealthiness.
CUENCA, a city and the capital of the province of Azuay,Ecuador, about 190 m. S. of Quito and 70 m. S.E. of Guayaquil.Pop. (1908 estimate) 30,000 (largely Indians), including thesuburb of Ejido. Cuenca stands at the northern end of a broadvalley, or basin, of the Andes, lying between the transverseridges of Azuay and Loja, and is about 8640 ft. above sea-level.Near by is the hill of Tarqui which the French astronomers chosefor their meridian in 1742. Communication with the coast isdifficult. Cuenca is the third most important city of Ecuador,being the seat of a bishopric, and having a college, a universityfaculty, a cathedral, and several churches, and a considerableindustrial and commercial development. It manufacturessugar, woollen goods and pottery, and exports Peruvian bark(cinchona), hats, cereals, cheese, hides, &c. It was founded in1557 on the site of a native town called Tumibamba, and wasmade an episcopal see in 1786.
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