Cda 1991
Lorri Dent
It was the final year of the Cold War, which had begun in 1947. During the year, the Soviet Union collapsed, leaving fifteen sovereign republics and the CIS in its place. In July 1991, India abandoned its policies of dirigism, license raj and autarky and began extensive liberalisation to its economy. This increased GDP but also increased income inequality over the next two decades.[1] A UN-authorized coalition force from 34 nations fought against Iraq, which had invaded and annexed Kuwait in the previous year, 1990. The conflict would be called the Gulf War and would mark the beginning of a since-constant American military presence in the Middle East. The clash between Serbia and the other Yugoslav republics would lead into the beginning of the Yugoslav Wars, which ran through the rest of the decade.
In the context of the apartheid, the year after the liberation of political prisoner Nelson Mandela, the Parliament of South Africa repeals the Population Registration Act, 1950, overturning the racial classification of the population, a key component of apartheid.[2]
In August, the World Wide Web, originally conceived during the previous year, was released outside CERN to other research institutions starting in January 1991 and publicly announced in August, also establishing the first website ever, "info.cern.ch". This step was a key factor that lead to the mid-1990s public breakthrough of the internet, which would eventually accelerate the already ongoing globalization around the globe.
In terms of popular culture, during this year alternative rock saw a new height of popularity when some of the earliest music exponents of the virtually unknown grunge sound were released, including the influential Nevermind album by Seattle-based band Nirvana in September 1991.[4] It was also in 1991 that hip-hop music reached an unprecedented mainstream level of success.[5] Electronic music derivative forms were also starting to gain momentum and would define, alone with the previous scenes, the sound for most of the decade.
"(3) REASONABLE ACCOMMODATION AND GOOD FAITH EFFORT. - In cases where a discriminatory practice involves the provision of a reasonable accommodation pursuant to section 102(b)(5) of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 or regulations implementing section 501 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, damages may not be awarded under this section where the covered entity demonstrates good faith efforts, in consultation with the person with the disability who has informed the covered entity that accommodation is needed, to identify and make a reasonable accommodation that would provide such individual with an equally effective opportunity and would not cause an undue hardship on the operation of the business.
"(1) DETERMINATION OF PUNITIVE DAMAGES. - A complaining party may recover punitive damages under this section against a respondent (other than a government, government agency or political subdivision) if the complaining party demonstrates that the respondent engaged in a discriminatory practice or discriminatory practices with malice or with reckless indifference to the federally protected rights of an aggrieved individual.
"(2) EXCLUSIONS FROM COMPENSATORY DAMAGES. - Compensatory damages awarded under this section shall not include backpay, interest on backpay, or any other type of relief authorized under section 706(g) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
"(3) LIMITATIONS. - The sum of the amount of compensatory damages awarded under this section for future pecuniary losses, emotional pain, suffering, inconvenience, mental anguish, loss of enjoyment of life, and other nonpecuniary losses, and the amount of punitive damages awarded under this section, shall not exceed, for each complaining party -
[This section amends section 722 of the Revised Statutes (42 U.S.C. 1988) by adding a reference to section 102 of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 to the list of civil rights actions in which reasonable attorney's fees may be awarded to the prevailing party, other than the United States.]
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Search for maximum, minimum, and average temperature normals and precipitation total normals for individual station locations from about 15,000 stations across the United States. Find annual/seasonal, monthly, daily, or hourly conventional 30-year normals and 15-year normals normals by station names.
Download CSV versions of the full suite of normals organized by variable or by station in our Web Accessible Folders for Annual/Seasonal, Monthly, Daily, and Hourly normals. More instructions and format information readme files are available in the documentation folders at these sites.
Changes during the core months of each season (January, April, July, and October) can be representative of broader differences between different normals iterations. The following examples illustrate the percent change in precipitation and the change in degrees Fahrenheit in maximum temperature for each core month.
April is the most dynamic core month, and exhibits a variety of significant changes in maximum temperature and precipitation. The maximum temperature normals are considerably lower in the north-central U.S. compared to the previous normals period. The entire northern tier is cooler, but changes reach more than -2F in parts of the Dakotas. Cooling patches reach all the way to Louisiana, although the areas to the west and east of the Mississippi Valley have warmed considerably. The entire southeastern quarter of the U.S. is now considerably wetter in April, while the southwest is drier. Additional precipitation is also seen in the lee of the northern Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes.
The Northwest is considerably drier as a percentage of the previous normal during what is already a dry season. The rest of the West is pockmarked with wetter and drier zones. The eastern two-thirds of the U.S. has an indistinct pattern of changes in the precipitation normals. Most of the East also remained near the same temperature levels, except for persistent cooling in the north central U.S. and warming in the Northeast. However, the entire West and lee of the Rocky Mountains and Texas are all considerably (up to 2) warmer.
Overall, the central month of each season displayed cooling normals in the north-central U.S. to varying degrees, most distinctly in April. Precipitation normals were generally wetter east of the Rockies, and drier in the central and southern West. While annual normals changes were generally consistent, the single months showed pattern shifts that indicate a relationship to repeated preference of certain upper air wind patterns and storm tracks that shifted north or south with the seasons. The patterns of normals changes are following spatial trends in climate circulation dynamics and surface feedbacks, but still demonstrate the warmer conditions expected in the U.S. overall and the reduction of precipitation in the West and increase in precipitation in the East as anticipated by models of future climate change
For example, the maximum temperature record for the KOKC station developed a substantial warming deviation from other nearby stations during early 2017 (see KOCK Oklahoma City - January Maximum Temperature).
The third file has a spreadsheet that compares annual maximum and minimum temperature normals between the three categories for quick station-to-station comparisons. Columns are labelled and normals are in tenths of degrees F.
In addition to basic averages for temperature, precipitation, and snowfall, more than 500 separate types of weather and climate statistics are available as part of the U.S. Normals dataset. Some are well known metrics like heating and cooling degree days, growing season length for various temperature thresholds, numbers of days with precipitation or with temperatures below freezing, etc. Other statistics are less well known, but are needed by various user communities, including percentiles and probabilities of key variables. All available variables serve a purpose, and are described in more detailed documentation available through the Data Access tool.
During the year following the initial release of the 1991-2020 station-based U.S. Climate Normals in May 2021, National Weather Service Forecast Offices submitted inquiries regarding the Normals at a total of 60 stations. Staff at NCEI carefully adjudicated each inquiry in collaboration with its NWS partners. At 21 stations, NWS staff was able to provide data additions and corrections, and NCEI staff recalculated or added the affected normals parameters based on the updated data records. In most cases, changes the monthly normals were
The nClimGrid monthly data provides a nearly homogenous temperature time series and a serially complete precipitation record. Unlike complex station climate normals, monthly gridded normals are simple averages of the maximum temperature, minimum temperature, mean temperature, and precipitation totals for each month of the year.
Figure 1: An example of 1991-2020 monthly gridded normals for April mean temperature (F) and precipitation (inches). The data are found in four netCDF files for each normal or baseline set, one each for maximum temperature, minimum temperature, mean temperature, and precipitation. Each data file is approximately 275 MB.
The variables available as daily normals include daily maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures and daily average, month-to-date, and year-to date precipitation totals. The same smoothing methods that are used to generate daily normals for observation stations have been applied to the values for each grid cell to make them transition smoothly from one day to another. The daily temperature normals are constrained so their monthly averages equal the monthly temperature normals, and the daily precipitation normals are adjusted to total to the monthly precipitation normals.