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Emelia Lute
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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the largest organelle in the cell, and its functions have been studied for decades. The past several years have provided novel insights into the existence of distinct domains between the ER and other organelles, known as membrane contact sites (MCSs). At these contact sites, organelle membranes are closely apposed and tethered, but do not fuse. Here, various protein complexes can work in concert to perform specialized functions such as binding, sensing and transferring molecules, as well as engaging in organelle biogenesis and dynamics. This Review describes the structure and functions of MCSs, primarily focusing on contacts of the ER with mitochondria and endosomes.
As coal consumption surges amid energy market turmoil, global efforts to slash the use of the most polluting fossil fuel by 2050 appear increasingly challenged. Several countries are now eyeing a strategy for using nuclear power that could reduce their reliance on fossil fuels over the coming years: installing small modular reactors (SMRs) on or near the site of retired coal fired plants.
From economics to preservation of the environment, projects in countries including France, India, Poland, Romania, the United Kingdom and the United States aim to benefit from such a strategy. For example, repurposing fossil plants with SMRs, besides helping lower emissions and maintain energy security, could also ensure a just economic transition for local communities. But several challenges must be addressed before such an approach can be widely adopted, according to speakers at a recent IAEA webinar, including testing and demonstrating SMRs.
More than 70 SMR designs are at different stages of development worldwide, with SMR units now operating in China and Russia. Repurposing coal plants with SMRs would enable the continuation of power production for local customers. Their generation capacity, between 200 MWe and 400 MWe, is similar to that of a typical coal fired plant, therefore these SMRs would also be suited to existing grid connections.
Cost saving factors could include avoiding land acquisition for the SMR plant, having an existing water source as well as rail and road connectivity, and a pool of trained human resources within commuting distance, according to Arun Kumar Nayak of the Reactor Technology Division at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in Mumbai, India.
Many of the balance of plant (BOP) systems used for running the coal-fired plant can also be repurposed for use with an SMR. These include plant make-up water and water storage systems; desalination plants; compressed air systems; chemical stores; technical gases storage system; wastewater treatment systems; mobile lifting equipment; and cooling towers.
Supply chains are also similar for coal and nuclear plants, meaning jobs can be preserved, while the cost of finance for nuclear, always such a significant part of the total price, can be reduced, according to Keeling. This would create a competitive cycle in the finance community for nuclear on the back of lower capital costs.
Nevertheless, challenges remain to implementing this transition scenario. First, wider deployment of SMRs is expected after 2030 pending their successful testing, demonstration and regulatory licensing. Then there are issues related to decontamination of coal plant sites, nuclear safety, emergency preparedness and response, nuclear waste disposal and public opinion.
In the US, the utility PacifiCorp has plans to reduce its coal fleet by two-thirds by 2030 and replace some of that with nuclear. After an extensive evaluation process of four brownfield sites, a location near the coal-fired Naughton power plant, which is due to retire in 2025, was selected as the preferred site for a sodium-cooled fast reactor with a molten salt-based energy storage system.
EPA announced plans for a third and final wave of more than $1 billion from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law for cleanup projects at more than 100 Superfund sites in communities across the country. This funding will start new cleanup projects at 25 sites on the National Priorities List and ongoing cleanup projects at over 85 Superfund sites. The list below includes the 25 sites where new cleanup projects will be funded from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law.
In February 2023, EPA announced plans to fund new cleanup projects at 22 Superfund sites on the National Priorities List using funds from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. This was the second wave of funding from the $3.5 billion allocated for Superfund cleanup work in the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The list below includes the 22 sites where new cleanup projects will be funded from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law.
In December 2021, announced plans to use a $1 billion investment from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law to clear the backlog of 49 previously unfunded Superfund sites and accelerate cleanup at dozens of other sites across the country. The list below includes the 49 National Priorities List sites where new cleanup projects will be funded from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law.
More than 700 U.S. military sites are known or likely to have discharged toxic fluorinated chemicals called PFAS, typically from the use of PFAS-based firefighting foam, according to Defense Department data compiled and mapped by EWG.
This map shows sites, in all 50 states and 3 territories, where for more than five decades military regulations required the use of PFAS-based aqueous film-forming foam, or AFFF, during training exercises. At 601 of the sites, water sampling and laboratory tests have confirmed that PFAS chemicals have contaminated drinking water or groundwater on or near the bases. This means that further testing could find PFAS contamination at some or all of the other 119 sites.
Studies have linked the two most notorious PFAS chemicals, known as PFOA and PFOS, to kidney and testicular cancer, thyroid disease, reproductive and immune system problems, and other serious health harms. Because they build up in the human body and do not break down in the environment, PFAS are often called "forever chemicals."
Since the 1960s, the Pentagon has used AFFF on bases and on naval ships to fight fires. By the mid-1970s at the latest, both the Navy and the 3M Company, which together developed AFFF, were aware of environmental and human health concerns with PFAS chemicals. The Pentagon started phasing out the use of firefighting foam containing PFOA and PFOS only in 2015, and continues to use foams with closely related PFAS chemicals that may be just as harmful.
The 601 sites with confirmed PFAS contamination were identified by EWG through Freedom of Information Act requests, Defense Department reports and public databases. The 119 sites with suspected releases of PFAS chemicals were identified by the Department of Defense PFAS Task Force and mapped by EWG.
Supply chains are also similar for coal and nuclear plants, meaning jobs can be preserved, and some of the existing infrastructure can continue to be repurposed for the nuclear plant. But challenges also need to be addressed related to decontaminating coal sites, and meeting the requirements for nuclear safety and nuclear waste disposal, among other examples.
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Industrial contaminants accumulated in Arctic permafrost regions have been largely neglected in existing climate impact analyses. Here we identify about 4500 industrial sites where potentially hazardous substances are actively handled or stored in the permafrost-dominated regions of the Arctic. Furthermore, we estimate that between 13,000 and 20,000 contaminated sites are related to these industrial sites. Ongoing climate warming will increase the risk of contamination and mobilization of toxic substances since about 1100 industrial sites and 3500 to 5200 contaminated sites located in regions of stable permafrost will start to thaw before the end of this century. This poses a serious environmental threat, which is exacerbated by climate change in the near future. To avoid future environmental hazards, reliable long-term planning strategies for industrial and contaminated sites are needed that take into account the impacts of cimate change.
In the Arctic permafrost region, near-surface air temperatures are rising at rates at least two times faster than the rest of the globe1,2, with latest data analyses suggesting up to four-fold faster warming3, substantially changing the ground stability and hydrological conditions4,5. A recent review highlighted the potential of new biogeochemical risks that could be associated with permafrost thaw and the mobilization of hazardous substances from various sources6. At the same time, there is clear evidence of increased risk to the stability of infrastructure in permafrost regions7,8,9, which was built on the premise of permanently frozen ground. One prominent environmental disaster, attributed in part to the loss of soil stability10, was the spillage of 17,000 tons of diesel fuel from a destabilized tank facility near the industrial city of Norilsk in northern Siberia in May 2020, which entered the Arctic ecosystem and contaminated rivers, lakes, and tundra in a large permafrost watershed.
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