Impact of Islam on Indian Art: Banerjee, Utpal, K.
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Impact of Islam on Indian ArtUtpal K. BanerjeeThe historical process of Islam's
advent in India has often been viewed as the triumph, dominance and induction
of Islamic culture over the indigenous one. The truth, however, is that an
initial period of conflict and confrontation was followed by co-existence and
mutual appreciation, leading ultimately to interaction and assimilation, to
form the uniquely composite culture of India. Forces of unity in Islam have
been the shared rituals and belief in the umma (Muslim community), with the
system of ijma (consensus) on theological issues providing a framework for
Islamic governance. The Islamic world-stretching from the Atlantic to the China
Sea incorporated a common heritage, which profoundly influenced the arts when
it came to India. Large-scale migration of Muslim architects, artisans and
artists played a significant role in the blending of the two traditions in
several art forms. In the Islamic tradition of community worship, masjid
(mosque) is the place of prostration for the jama'a (gathering), especially the
majid al-jama'a (Friday mosque). The use of colour in Islamic architecture is a
special achievement. An example is the use of turquoise or blue tiles on the
dome of the tomb of a saint or of the mosque, which strongly contrasts with the
chromatic restraint visible elsewhere. Unlike the symbolic or representational
themes in some other cultures, this decorative urge stemming from a desire for
purely ornamental purpose came to be a hallmark of Islamic art. Another Islamic
artistic expression manifests as the chabr bagh, a four-fold garden envisaged
as the earthly reflection of paradise. Such gardens can be seen in Spain,
Central Asia and India, often revealing the route taken by Islamic art to reach
these places. These gardens are formally planned with geometrically laid-out
paths, watercourses and trees. Another influence of the paradise image in
decorative arts can be seen in the exquisite carpets designed in Persia and
India. Finally, the Sufi movement, which grew among those who wished to enter
into a closer relationship with God and reached Indian shores even before the
Islamic conquerors did, involved sama (music), poetry and raks (dance) as a
means of intensifying love for God and experiencing a state of ecstasy. Such
practices contributed immensely to the performing arts, within mystic tenets.
In visual arts, pre-Islamic India had seen a profusion of magnificent Hindu and
Jain temples, Buddhist vibaras (abodes), royal palaces and forts. Islam brought
with it mosques for collective worship, a practice distinct from what took
place inside a temple's sanctum sanctorum individual prayer for a salvation.
Islam also brought with it the tradition of the maqbara (mausoleum in memory of
the dead), a structure not seen so far in India. While a mausoleum could be
octagonal, square or rectangular, the only religious dictum was to lay the
deceased facing west, i.e., Mecca. Finally, Islamic cities incorporated secular
buildings such as madarsa (school), darwaza (high gateway), serai (inn),
Diwan-i-Am (place for public audience), Diwan-i-Khas (place for secret
confabulation), bamam (bath), Khwabgab (bedroom) and daftar (office), among
others. Muslim Architects During the rapid urbanization that took place in
India at the turn of the first millennium, many Muslim architects and builders
reassembled blocks of the earlier temples to create the first architectural
imprints of Islam. Examples which readily come to mind are the Qutb mosque at
Delhi, the masjids at Pandua (Bengal), Dholka, Bharuch, Cambay and Daulatabad,
Lat ki Masjid at Dhar and Lal Darwaza Masjid at Jaunpur. As the years passed,
geometric patterns came to be used for creating beautiful jalis (screens).
Islamic influence went on to produce, in course of time, its monumental gifts
to India: the royal palace complex at Fatehpur Sikri, with its lofty gateway
the Buland Darwaza; structures inside the Agra Fort and, of course, the Taj
Mahal. Under the eclectic influence of Akbar, a few of his nobles built Hindu
temples at Vrindavan in the unique architectural style that is also known as
the Indo-Islamic style. Islamic calligraphic tradition is best illustrated by
the Quranic inscriptions on the Taj by the celebrated artist Amanat Khan. From
the calligraphy on the mosques and illumined copies of Quran, one can identify
the name of God, the Prophet and the key opening words of the suras,
irrespective of the script being Kuficor Nasta'aliq. Kbush-naveesi (beautiful
writing) was elevated to a visual art to cater to religious and aesthetic
needs. With upright strokes and full curves, it replaced figurative images in
accordance with Islamic tenets. Continuing the tradition of his Timurid
forefathers who decorated the Central Asian cities of Bukhara, Samarkand and
Oxus, Akbar used both Hindu and Islamic sculptors to beautify his city of
Fatehpur Sikri. The sculpted features of Buland Darwaza, Diwan-e-Khas, Panch
Mabal and the dargah (tomb) of Salim Chisti are some of the instances in point
at Sikri. The mural paintings at Jodhabai's Palace and Akbar's Palace were
perhaps done by Hindu artists, but it was Abdus Samad, Akbar's famous "master
of the mint", who produced gold coins with an image of Rama and Sita, seated
among swans and flowers. Akbar followed the portrait style of the 1st century
Kushans to illumine Persian translations of the epics Ramayana and Mahabbarata
(called Razmnamab-the Annals of War). Other illustrated manuscripts comprised
translation of Atharvaveda, Vedanta, yoga Shasbtra, Harivamsa,
Kathabsaritsagar, Simbasana Batrisi, Yogvashista, Nal Damayanti and the
mathematical treatise Leelvati. Painting, ornamentation and calligraphy joined
hands to decorate these manuscripts. Most of these were produced at a
"collective studio": the chief artists drawing sketches, assistant artists
mixing colours, a third doing faces, a wasilgar binding the books a naksbnavis
working out the borders and, finally, a khushnavis executing the calligraphy.
Abul Faz'ls Akbar Nama recounting the emperor's successes and failures, dreams
and idiosyncrasies, pomp and grandeour, conspiracies and excursions, and much
bedsides has 109 such illuminations, out of which 98 are collaborative works!
Hamzanamah, adventures of the Prophet's uncle, has 1400 paintings, executed by
Mir Said Ali and Abdus Samad. Indian crafts The impact of Islamic civilization
on Indian crafts has been profound. The Muslims not merely brought stitched
garments to Inida, but also adapted them to local materials, weather and
wearing style. The sheer mull and chicken and katao-work angrakha and jamdaani
sash of the Mughal court came to be in complete harmony with the flowing dhoti
and angavastra of Indian tradition. In the karkhanas (workshops) of Akbar and
Jahangir, Indian craftsmen worked with Persian and Turkish masters to create
new art forms that integrated the best of both cultures. The creation of
beautiful objects was not merely an act of worship, but also extended to
domestic interiors with woven, embroidered, sequined, patchwork and printed
material as well as decorative exteriors with moulded stucco-work, fretted
jalis, carved marble and inlay work. Thousands of pietra dura workers in agra
still make plates and tabletops with Mughals motifs, and gold, silver and jade
are still inlaid with precious stones. Indian music had impressed the
Turk-Afghan royal courts early on. When the Sufis from Central Asia and Iran
started coming in strength to India from the 11th century onwards, music played
a central role at the sittings held at the khanqabs (hospices) of at leat the
chisti and Suhrawardi sects. Sheikh Bahauddin Zakaria, a saint of the
Suhrawardi sect, considerably influenced the folk songs of Punjab and Sind,
which are still sung. Among the disciples of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia who
himself had a refined taste for music and poetry Amir Khusrau was a profound
genius in music. He introduced forms new to the existing ones in music and
poetic compositions, such as qaul, qawwali, qalbana, naqsh-guland nigar.
According to Persian texts, he created twelve new melodies including zilad,
sarparda and others. Muslim singers like Bakshoo took freely to the new musical
forms such as dhrupad and were patronized by several royal houses. In Akbar's
time, the famous musician Tansen rose to exalted heights by composing new ragas
like Mian ki Malbar and Deepak. Old musical forms, under the influence of
qawwali and qaul, emerged as a new style of music, the khayal. In the late
medieval period, mystic elements were replaced by romance elements in the
composition of popular khayals, some of them prevalent till today. Other
musical forms like tarana, thumri and tappa were a direct outcome of the
synthesis of indigenous music with Islamic influence. Muslim musicians also
established gharanas, literally 'families', each with a unique musical
tradition, which continue to impart excellent training. Some of the most
popular musical instruments in vogue today, such as the shebnai, sarangi,
sarod, sitar and table came into existence under Islamic influence. Muslim and
Hindu components in Hindustani music have, no doubt, been harmoniously and
inextricably interwoven in a rich tapestry. The Sufi saints of Kashmir in the
medieval period included poetesses like Lal Dead and Habba Khatun, whose songs
inspired the dance of the hafizas and choral folk-forms like rouf in dance and
dance drama, Katbak, an acknowledged classical dance form, also benefited from
the synthesis and acquired new dimensions to become the court dance at the
royal courts of the Mughal emperors. Jahangir supposedly even designed the
costumes for katbak dancers! Nautanki, a beautiful folk-theatre prevalent in UP
and Bihar since 11th-12th centuries came to be a blend of Hindu and Muslim
cultures in its language, music, costume, themes and characters reflecting a
composite social et up. The courtly language of nautanki required ornate
musical compositions in Persianised Urdu, with a mixture of other dialects.
Bhavai of Gujarat, though secular in origan, also came to use many Islamic
influences. Naqals of the Punjab and Mirasis of Kashmir were mostly Muslim
artist-clowns. Bhand Jashna (festival of pretenders), a half a millennium old
Kashmiri folk-theatre form, which flourished in the Muslim court is still
extant. In puppet theatre, too, the Islamic influence can be traced very
prominently. Thus, Islam's influence created a new freedom and secular,
everyday usage for art forms, introducing abstract and decorative concepts
rather than figurative, narrative and symbolic ornamentation.