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In this unit you will develop the analytical skills to understand historical change. We will examine political, economic, social and cultural trends in a range of regions across a large span of time, c. 1000-1750 AD. Topics covered include Christianity and Islam, varieties of states and empires, and political transformations. We will examine the significance of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment, and consider what these episodes look like in a global context.
At the end of the 18th century, Europe and the Americas were overcome by a number of revolutions that profoundly transformed the colonial empires England, France, and Spain had built. News of the French Revolution rapidly spread to Saint-Domingue, France's most profitable colony in the Caribbean, which was then producing with African slave labor much of the sugar and coffee consumed in England and France. From 1788 to 1791, as the ties of empire weakened and the French monarchy was swept aside the island's white planters and settlers mainly fought among themselves divided as royalists and separatists, but united in wanting self-rule, the continuation of slavery, and their racial privileges as whites. As the revolution became more radical in France, extending in 1791 full legal equality to all free men, whatever their color, this proclamation inspired slaves to seek their own freedom too, sparking revolts on Saint-Domingue, which quickly left many of the island's plantations destroyed and some 2,000 whites dead. Spain and England came to the aid of the planters on Saint-Domingue, but just as they did France abolished African slavery in 1794, the first country in the world to do so, sparking slave revolts in Spain and England's colonies. What began as an independence movement in Saint-Domingue in 1791, quickly devolved into a genocidal racial war against whites and French power, and ending in 1804 with the creation of the Republic of Haiti.
In the years that followed, the Mexican government awarded many more empresario grants. Why Spain and then Mexico eagerly welcomed Anglo settlers into Texas is best understood with a short digression to include another set of powerful historical actors in the region, Native Americans. In 1706, New Mexico's Spanish authorities reported that a group of Indians known as Comanches had entered the grasslands south of the Rio Grande. Though the observation was made in passing and seemingly without alarm, by the middle of the century the Comanches had become the major force in the southern plains, amassing contingents of armed and mounted warriors that often reached the thousands, significantly outnumbering anything Spain, France, England, or the U.S. could muster to resist their advances. Known to the Spanish as the indios bárbaros, these "barbaric Indians" were indeed formidable opponents. Remembered fearfully by the Spanish for their plundering and killing and for their looting and enslaving, they were, in fact, nimble political actors who often consciously played the local functionaries of European empires against each other to expand their own commercial trade networks in livestock, hides, and slaves. From the 1780s on the territory of their effective control expanded rapidly because of their acquisition of horses and arms, their development of remarkable equestrian skills and their unflinching humiliation of their competitors. By the 1840s, their lands reached from the eastern border of Texas at the Nueces River westward to New Mexico's western border, eventually extending to encompass the southern half of Colorado all the way south to the Mexican states of Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, which were home to Spain's most lucrative silver mines. In this area the Comanches cut a swath of trade and terror few could match, prompting historian Pekka Hämäläinen to call it a Comanche Empire, which on the ground fully overpowered anything Spain, Mexico, France, England, or the U.S. could muster.
Did you know that empires endured for more than two millennia before finally giving way to the world of nation-states we take for granted? The most recent nation-state is scarcely sixty years old! Empires played a long and critical role in human history and maintained a diversity of people, both conquered and incorporated. For some, foreign conquest meant greater cultural and commercial opportunity and the widening of mental horizons. For others, it meant the limiting of freedoms and increased human suffering. In the Americas and the Pacific, it led to the elimination of entire peoples. Empires have compelled political controversies, innovations, conflicts and aspirations well into the twenty-first century. Explore how practices of imperialism continue to shape our world.
Determine how imperial rule was imposed and maintained and scrutinize the cultural mores and beliefs that justified the spread and maintenance of empires. Synthesize and apply what you learn during a final mock debate where you argue and adjudicate competing claims related to a contemporary, real-world example!
ANEE is a group of researchers working in three interlocking teams with diverse methodological approaches. We ask how social group identities were impacted by changing empires in the ancient Near East. Our aim is to shed light on a millennium of changing imperial dynamics instead of treating each past empire in isolation.
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