The jslider widget that the sliderInput uses is capable of displaying arbitrary labels on each tick, but Shiny's R and Javascript code that wraps up the jslider doesn't expose all of the functionality that would be needed.
See example here:
The labels are arbitrary, and are manually set so they appear logarithmic; the actual values are shown on top. Probably for your case, you'd want to hide the value on top or make it display a transformed value.
If you're curious about what jslider can do, see the last example here - it uses times for labels and has a transformation function to show the time for the labels below, and for the value above the slider.
-Winston