General References relevant to the history of Shi‘ism
HReza Zabeth
General References relevant to the history of Shi‘ism
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
After having a general survey of some of the special references on the history of Shi‘ism, we shall examine the general references for this history. The general references with respect to their subjects are as follows:
1. Tarikh-e ‘Umumi {General History};
2. Zendeginameh-ye Imaman (‘a) {Biography of the Imams (‘a)};
3. Kitab-ha-ye Fitan va Hurub {Books on Revolts and Wars};
4. Kitab-ha-ye Rijal va Tabaqat {Books on Rijal and Classes};
5. Kitab-ha-ye Jughrafiya {Books on Geography};
6. Kitab-ha-ye Akhbar {Books on Narrations};
7. Kitab-ha-ye Nasab {Books on Genealogy};
8. Kitab-ha-ye Hadith {Books on Hadiths};
9. Kitab-ha-ye Milal va Nihal {Books on Nations and Religions}.
1. General History
In this book’s survey of the history of Shi‘ism, the most widely used books are those relating to the general history of the first centuries hijri and the history of the caliphate, such as Tarikh al-Ya‘qubi, Murawwij adh-Dhahab, Tarikh at-Tabari, Al-Kamil fi’t-Tarikh, Al-‘Abr, Al-Imammah wa’s-Siyasah, Tarikh al-Khulafa’, Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah of Ibn Abi’l-Hadid, including even the analytical history research and books written by contemporary writers. Among the general history books, I have used Tarikh al-Ya‘qubi and Murawwij adh-Dhahab extensively.
In these two books, historical events and occurrences have been recorded fairly impartially and without any attempt at concealing the truth. Ya‘qubi has expressed in detail the oppositions of Companions of the Prophet (S) with the caliphate of Abubakr, criticizing the groupings after the demise of the Prophet (S).[1][20]
He has embarked, as far as he could, on mentioning the events relevant to the history of the Shi‘ah such as the government of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a),[2][21] the peace treaty of Imam al-Hasan (‘a),[3][22] the martyrdom of Hujr ibn al-‘Addi,[4][23] ‘Amru ibn Hamq[5][24] and that of Imam al-Husayn (‘a),[6][25] more or less presenteing the truth of the matter.
Mas‘udi is also among the historians who had no intention of concealing the truth. Although he has only dealt in passing with the event of Saqifah in the books Murawwij adh-Dhahab and At-Tanbiyyah wa’l-Ashraf, he nevertheless has mentioned the differences of the Companions and the Banu Hashim’s refusal to pay allegiance to Abubakr.[7][26]
In another part of the first book, Mas‘udi wrote the issue of Fadak[8][27] and discussed in detail the events that took place during the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) and the martyrdom of Imam al-Hasan (‘a).[9][28]
He has mentioned the names of the Shi‘ah and their tribes as well as the enemies of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) in various parts of Murawwij adh-Dhahab.[10][29] Also, in the years of the Holy Imams’ (‘a) demise, he has given a short account of their lives.[11][30] He has, in particular, detailed the uprisings of the ‘Alawis during the 2nd century hijri.[12][31]
2. Biography of the Imams
Among the books relevant to the life accounts of the Imams (‘a), the book, Al-Irshad, by Shaykh al-Mufid and Tadhkirah al-Khawas by Ibn al-Jawzi occupy (special) importance. Al-Irshad is the first and most important available Shi‘ah reference authority on the life account of the twelve Imams (‘a).
In view of the fact that part of ‘Ali’s (‘a) life overlapped that of the life of the Prophet (S), the life account and conduct {sirah} of the Prophet (S) has also been included in this book, especially his battles in all of which ‘Ali (‘a) had been present, with the exception of the Tabuk expedition. Concerning the book, it is enough to say that no researcher on the history of Shi‘ism and the biography of the infallible Imams (‘a) is needless of it.
The Tadhrikah al-Khawas of Ibn al-Jawzi occupies special importance in the sense that the biography of the Shi‘ah Imams (‘a) has been expressed through the language of a Hanafi and non-Shi‘ah person, but no sort of negligence of the truth and concealment of the reality has taken place.
3. Books on Revolts and Wars
These references deal particularly with the wars that have great importance in the historiography of Muslims. The Waq‘ah as-Siffin of Nasr ibn Mazahim al-Munqari (born 212 AH), which deals with the event and confrontation at Siffin, can be regarded as the oldest among them.
This book contains valuable information regarding the correspondence between ‘Ali (‘a) and Mu‘awiyah as well as the various sermons and speeches of the former. Valuable information concerning the opinion of the Companions of the Prophet (S) regarding ‘Ali and the influence of Shi‘ism among the different tribes can be acquired from the different parts of the book.
The book, Al-Gharat, written by Ibrahim Thaqafi al-Kufi (283 AH), is one of the other references written about this subject. This book is related to the events that occurred during the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a), and examines the plunders and pillages committed by Mu‘awiyah’s agents in the realm of ‘Ali’s (‘a) government. The conditions and situations of the Commander of the Faithful’s (‘a) Shi‘ah can be extracted from various sections of the book.
Al-Jamal or Nusrah al-Jamal of Shaykh al-Mufid, which examines the event of the Battle of Jamal (Camel) is yet another valuable references in this regard. As it is about the Commander of the Faithful’s (‘a) first battle during his caliphate, this book illustrates ‘Ali’s (‘a) station among the people of Iraq prior to his arrival there.
4. Books on Rijal and Classes
‘Ilm ar-Rijal is one of the sciences mentioned in relation to the science of hadith. Its utility is in the study of the chain of transmission of hadith through which it deals with the life account and background of the hadith narrators and on the rectification of the Companions of the Prophet (S).
In the Shi‘ah rijal, apart from the Companions of the Prophet (S), the companions of the infallible Imams (‘a) have also been discussed. The science of rijal started in the 2nd century hijri and continues to exist to the present, having acquired perfection with the passage of time.
Some of the most famous and reputable writings of the Ahl as-Sunnah in this context are Al-Isti‘ab fi Ma‘rifah al-Ashab, written by Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr al-Qurtubi (463 AH); Asad al-Ghabah fi Ma‘rifah as-Sahabah, authored by Ibn Athir al-Juzri (630 AH); Tarikh Baghdad, penned by Khatib al-Baghdadi (392-463 AH); and Al-Isabah fi Ma‘rifah as-Sahabah, written by Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani.
Similarly, the most important Shi‘ah rijali books are Ikhtibar Ma‘rifah ar-Rijal, written by Shaykh at-Tusi (385-460 AH); Rijal an-Najasi (Fihrist Asma’ Musannif ash-Shi‘ah) better known as Rijal, Kitab ar-Rijal, and Kitab al-Fihrist of Shaykh at-Tusi (385-460 AH); Rijal al-Burqa, authored by Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khalid al-Burqa (280 AH); Al-Mashaykhah of Shaykh as-Saduq (381 AH).
Ma‘alim al-‘Ulama’ of Ibn Shahr Ashub Mazandarani (488-588 AH); and Rijal Ibn Dawud of Taqi ad-Din Hasan ibn ‘Ali ibn Dawud al-Hilli (647-707 AH). Of course, the science of rijal has acquired greater perfection among the Shi‘ah and has been divided into various branches.
Some books on rijal such as Asad al-Ghabah, Fihrist Shaykh, Rijal an-Najashi, and Ma‘alim al-‘Ulama’ have been written in (Arabic) alphabetical order while some others such as Rijal Shaykh and Rijal al-Burqa have been arranged according to the classes of the Companions of the Prophet (S) and the Imams (‘a).
There are other types of rijal books in which the people are surveyed according to various classifications, and the most important of them is the Tabaqat of Ibn Sa‘d.
5. Books on Geography
Some of the geography books are travelogues most of which have been written after the third century hijri. Since in this book the history of Shi‘ism has been examined in the first three centuries hijri, a number of them have not been used so much, but other geography books which have presented documents are among the references used in this research.
Among them, Mu‘jam al-Buldan has been used most on account of its comprehensiveness. The writer of the book, Yaqut al-Hamawi, has treated the Shi‘ah with bias; mentioning the names of the great families in Kufah, he has failed to mention any of the names of the great Shi‘ah scholars and families.
6. Books on Narrations
What is meant by references and books on narrations {akhbar} is not the books on hadith that dealt on the lawful {halal} and the prohibited {haram}. They referred instead to history books based on the method of writing history during the period of Islam in which historical events and news have been mentioned in narrative form with the inclusion of the chain of narrators; that is, following the method of the people of hadith in recording and narrating historical events.
This kind of history writing has some salient features. Firstly, any set of news regarding isolated event is mentioned distinct from other events, and it is by itself complete without any link with other news and events. Secondly, literary characteristics can also be observed in it; that is, sometimes the writer makes use of poem, story and debate.
In most cases, this feature can be seen particularly in narrative works which were influenced by the form of Ayyam al-‘Arab narrations. On account of this, some researchers have regarded the historiography of khabar {news, report, narration} to have originated from the khabar of the stories about the period prior to the advent of Islam.
Thirdly, the chain of narrators is mentioned. In reality, this method of history writing, particularly during the first two centuries hijri, was in most cases the way of presenting the primary sources of history. Significant corpus of the written works of the Islamic period is through this method.
Among the books on narrations {akhbar}, Al-Akhbar al-Mu’affaqiyyat of Zubayr ibn Bakkar occupies special importance. The writer of this book, Zubayr ibn Bakkar, apart from being among the descendants of Zubayr who had ancient hostility to the Ahl al-Bayt of the Prophet (S), had good relations with Mutawakkil, the ‘Abbasid caliph, who was a staunch enemy of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) and his descendants; the teacher of his children[13][32] and had been appointed as the judge in Mecca.[14][33] In spite of this, valuable information regarding the Companions of the Prophet’s (S) protest against the caliphate of Abubakr has been recorded in this book. The narration of their poems, in particular, which contain their belief on the guardianship {wasayah} of ‘Ali (‘a), is an expression of these protests.
7. Books on Genealogy
Among the books on genealogy, Ansab al-Ashraf of Baladhuri, which is the best reference in this regard, has been used most. On the other hand, this book can be considered as among the books on (personal) backgrounds {ahwal}.
This is in spite of the fact that in terms of genealogical knowledge, the book Jumharah Ansab al-‘Arab is the most comprehensive book, which has also presented a brief explanation of the description of some individuals.
The book, Muntaqilah at-Talibiyyin, has examined the migration of sadat (sing. sayyid) and descendants of the Prophet (S). By utilizing its subjects, the trend of Shi‘ism during the first centuries hijri in the Muslim lands can be examined.
8. Books on Hadith
Another set of the references on the history of Shi‘ism includes the books on hadith. Hadith in the Sunni usage refers to the Prophet’s (S) sayings, actions and tacit approvals of others’ actions, but the Shi‘ah regards the infallible Imams (‘a) as also attached to the Prophet (S), treating their sayings, actions and tacit approvals as proofs {hujaj} as well.
The hadith books of the Ahl as-Sunnah such as As-Sahih of al-Bukhari (194-256 AH), Al-Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (164-241 AH), and Al-Mustadrak ‘ala’s-Sahihayn of Hakim an-Nayshaburi (d. 450 AH) are good references for the study of Shi‘ism among the Companions and of the rightfulness of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) which is the basis of Shi‘ism.
The Shi‘ah books on hadith such as the “four books” {kutub al-arba‘ah}, viz. Al-Kafi of al-Kulayni (d. 329 AH); Man La Yahdhuruh al-Faqih of Shaykh as-Saduq (d. 381 AH); and Tahdhib al-Ahkam and Al-Istibsar of Shaykh at-Tusi (d. 360 AH).
And other books such as Al-Amali, Ghurar al-Fawa’id and Durar al-Qala’id of Sayyid Murtada (355-436 AH); Al-Ihtijaj of at-Tabarsi (6th century hijri); and the bulky encyclopedia of hadith, Bihar al-Anwar of ‘Allamah Majlisi (d. 1111 AH), apart from having the merit of the books of the Ahl as-Sunnah, can be utilized, by referring to the hadiths of the infallible Imams (‘a), in knowing about the scattering of the Shi‘ah, their resident places, their social relations, and their mode of communication with the infallible Imams (‘a).
9. Books on Nations and Religions
One of the most important references and authorities in this regard is the book, Al-Milal wa’n-Nihal of Shahristani (479-548 AH). In terms of comprehensiveness and oldness, this book is considered a good reference and as a reference authority of researchers and scholars.
This is in spite of the fact that the author has approached the subject with bias. In the beginning of the book, he has quoted the hadith on “73 sects” and introduced the Ahl as-Sunnah as the “saved sect”. As such, he tried his best to highlight the spread of “Shi‘ah sects” so as to prove that the plentitude of the “Shi‘ah sects” is a proof of the falsehood of this school of thought {madhhab}.
He has regarded the sects such as Mukhtariyyah, Baqiriyyah, Ja‘fariyyah, Mufdhalah, Nu‘maniyyah, Hishamiyyah, and Yunusiyyah as “Shi‘ah” although these sects do not exist in reality. Similarly, in the book, Khutat, Maqrizi has said that the “Shi‘ah sects” are 300 all in all, but at the time of enumerating them he failed to mention more than 20 sects.
Among the oldest and most important books on nations and religions are Al-Maqalat wa’l-Firaq of Ash‘ari al-Qummi and Firaq ash-Shi‘ah of Nawbakhti. Ash‘ari al-Qummi and Nawbakhti are among the Shi‘ah scholars who lived in the second half of the 3rd century hijri. The book, Al-Maqalat wa’l-Firaq, in terms of presenting information, is so extensive and has good comprehensiveness, but its subjects are diverse with any proper classification.
According to the views expressed by some researchers, the book, Firaq ash-Shi‘ah of Nawbakhti is actually the same book as Al-Maqalat wa’l-Firaq.
Summary
General references for the history of Shi‘ism are the following:
o Books on general history, which have been written in the first centuries hijri, and among them Murawwij adh-Dhahab and Tarikh al-Ya‘qubi, occupy special importance;
o Books on the biography of the Imams (‘a) such as Al-Irshad of Shaykh al-Mufid;
o Books on revolts and wars such as Waq‘ah as-Siffin;
o Books on rijal and classes as well as books written about (personal) backgrounds {ahwal};
o Books on geography such as travelogues and history of cities;
o Books on narrations which have been the same in form with the first history writing;
o Books on genealogy such as Jumharah Ansab al-‘Arab;
o Books on hadith as well as books on nations and religions.
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Shi‘ah in the Lexicon and the Holy Qur’an
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
The word “Shi‘ah” in the lexicon is derived from the root-word شيع {shaya‘a} which means escorting {mushayi‘ah}, victory and bravery {shuja‘ah}.[15][34] It is equally applied to the followers and supporters as it is usually applied to the followers and supporters of ‘Ali (‘a).[16][35] As Azhari has said, “Shi‘ah refers to a group that loves the progeny {‘itrah} and descendants of the Prophet (S).”[17][36]
Ibn al-Khaldun says:
Be aware that ‘Shi‘ah’ in the lexicon means ‘followers’ and ‘supporters’, and in the parlance of the past and present jurists {fiqh} and scholastic theologians {mutakallimun}, it is applied to the followers of ‘Ali and his descendants.[18][37]
But Shahristani limits the definitional scope of the word ‘Shi‘ah’, saying:
‘Shi‘ah’ is referring to those who follow ‘Ali alone and believe in his Imamate {imamah} and caliphate {khilafah} to be based on revelation {nass}, and they say: ‘Imamate shall not bypass him except {that it is done} through injustice {zulm}’.[19][38]
There are also many cases in the Qur’an in which “Shi‘ah” connotes “followers” and “supporters” such as:
﴿ وَإِنَّ مِنْ شِيعَتِهِ لإبْرَاهِيمَ ﴾
“Indeed Abraham was among his followers {shi‘ah}”[20][39]
and the verse,
﴿ فَاسْتَغَاثَهُ الَّذِي مِنْ شِيعَتِهِ عَلَى الَّذِي مِنْ عَدُوِّهِ ﴾
“The one who was from his (Moses’) followers {shi‘ah} sought his help against him who was from his enemies.”[21][40]
The word “Shi‘ah” has also been mentioned in the Prophetic traditions to mean “followers and friends of ‘Ali (‘a)”.[22][41]
“Shi‘ah” in the Shi‘ah references does not have more than one meaning and conception and that is belief in the succession of ‘Ali (‘a) and his eleven descendants in which no change has ever taken place since the demise of the Prophet (S) up to the minor occultation {ghaybah as-sughra}. Just as the Shi‘ah of the second half of the third century hijri believed in all the twelve Imams (‘a), the pioneering Shi‘ah among the Companions of the Prophet (S) also believed in this affair because they had been informed of the names of these Imams from the Prophetic traditions.[23][42]
Although many of the Shi‘ah had no access to these traditions due to the atmosphere of strangulation maintained by the tyrant rulers, what was obligatory (for them) was to recognize the Imam of their respective times. As the Holy Prophet (S) said, “He who will die without recognizing the Imam of his time dies in a state of ignorance {jahiliyyah}.”[24][43]
As such, we can see that when Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) attained martyrdom, Zurarah who was an old man sent his son, ‘Ubayd, to inquire about the successor of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a). But before ‘Ubayd was able to return to Kufah, Zurarah, who was about to die, took hold of a copy of the Qur’an and said: “O God! Be my witness that I testify to the Imamate {imamah} of the one who has been designated in this Qur’an.”[25][44]
Of course, with the passage of time, the meaning and concept of Shi‘ah assumes an explicit form and its scope is determined. Thus, the infallible Imams (‘a) have regarded those who are identified with the false sects and faiths as outside Shi‘ah circles, as Shaykh at-Tusi narrates from Hamran ibn A‘in:
I asked Imam al-Baqir (‘a): “Am I really among your Shi‘ah?” The Imam (‘a) replied: “Yes, you are among our Shi‘ah in this world and in the hereafter, and the names of the Shi‘ah and their fathers are written for us. Why, are there those who turn their back to us?” I replied: “May I be your ransom! Is it possible for somebody to be your Shi‘ah and to have knowledge of your being in truth, and then to turn his back from you?” The Imam (‘a) said: “Yes, O Hamran! You will not perceive them.”
Hamzah az-Zayyat, who is one of the narrators of this hadith, thus says:
Concerning this hadith we made a discussion and we were not able to understand the purport of the Imam (‘a). As such, I wrote a letter to Imam ar-Rida (‘a) and I asked him (‘a) (about this). The Imam (‘a) said: “Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) was referring to the Waqifiyyah (a deviant sect).”[26][45]
It is for this reason that in the parlance of the Shi‘ah rijal writers, the title Shi‘ah is only applied to the Shi‘ah believing in the twelve Imams (‘a) and in the language of the jurists {fuqaha}, they are sometimes described as “our companions” {ashabuna} or “our Imami companions” {ashabuna al-imamiyyah}.
And those who had inclined toward the deviant sects and drifted away from the course of Shi‘ism have described with such labels as Fathi, Waqifi, Nawusi, etc. and if ever the names of some of them are mentioned in the Shi‘ah books on rijal, the reason is that they had narrated these traditions prior to their deviation, just as the names of a number of Sunni narrators who have narrated from the infallible Imams (‘a) have been mentioned in these books.
The Sunni scholars and rijal writers, however, have used the word Shi‘ah in broader sense and they have applied it to all the sects that have separated from the body of Shi‘ism and even to the ghulat as well.
In addition, they also refer to those who love and admire the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) as “Shi‘ah”. This is while some of these people do not have any sort of belief in the infallibility {‘ismah} and Imamate {imamah} of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a), such as Sufyan ath-Thawri, a rector {mufti} in Iraq who issued edicts {fatawa} based on the Ahl as-Sunnah, but Ibn al-Qutaybah has enlisted him along with the Shi‘ah.[27][46] Regarding ash-Shafi‘i, who is the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of thought {madhahib}, Ibn Nadim thus says:
كَانَ الشَّافِعِي شَدِيْداً في التَّشَيُّع.
“Ash-Shafi‘i had extreme Shi‘ism {tashayyu‘}.”[28][47]
Of course, during the second and third centuries hijri, besides the Shi‘ah Imami, the Zaydis constituted the greatest number of Shi‘ah. They were “Shi‘ah” more in the political sense than in ideology because, in terms of jurisprudence {fiqh}, they were not followers of the Ja‘fari fiqh; rather they were followers of the Hanafi fiqh.[29][48]
From the viewpoint of the ideological principles also, as narrated by Shahristani, “For sometime, Zayd was a student of Wasil ibn ‘Ata’, the founder of the Mu‘tazilah (Mu‘tazilite) madhhab and has learned from him the principles of the Mu‘tazilah madhhab.”
Therefore, the Zaydis are Mu‘tazilites in principles {usul}. It is for this reason that they used to regard as permissible {jayiz} the Imamate {imamah} of a deserving person {mafdhul} in the existence of the more deserving person {afdhal} and in that they do not disrespect the two sheikhs {shaykhayn} (Abubakr and ‘Umar).[30][49] And in terms of beliefs, they are closer to the Ahl as-Sunnah, as Ibn al-Qutaybah thus says: “Among the rafidhi (Shi‘ah) sects, the Zaydis have the least extremism {ghulu}.”[31][50]
It was for this reason that the uprising of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah—one of the Zaydi leaders—was praised by some jurists {fuqaha} of the Ahl as-Sunnah, and as narrated by Waqidi, Abubakr ibn Sirah,[32][51] Ibn ‘Ajlan,[33][52] and ‘Abd Allah ibn Ja‘far[34][53]—who were among the great hadith scholars {muhaddithun} of the Medina school {maktab} and from whom Waqidi himself has narrated hadith—were involved in the uprising of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah. Also, Shahristani says: “Abu Hanifah was among the followers of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah.”[35][54]
The Mu‘tazilites of Basrah also agreed with the uprising of Muhammad and based on Abu’l-Faraj al-Isfahani’s narration, “A group of the Mu‘tazilites in Basrah such as Wasil ibn ‘Ata’ and ‘Amru ibn ‘Ubayd have paid allegiance to him.”[36][55]
As such, the Zaydis can be regarded as Shi‘ah only from the political viewpoint although they believe in the superiority of the descendants of Fatimah (‘a).
Summary
Shi‘ah, according to the lexicon, refers to the followers and supporters of ‘Ali (‘a). In the Shi‘ah references, “Shi‘ah” does not have more than one meaning and that is belief in the succession of ‘Ali (‘a) and his eleven descendants.
The infallible Imams used to consider those who were identified with the deviant sects as outside the circle of Shi‘ism, but the Sunni scholars and rijal writers have used the word Shi‘ah in broader sense and they have applied it to all the sects that have separated from the body of Shi‘ism as well as to the admirers of the descendants of the Prophet (S). Of course, during the second and third centuries hijri, next to the Shi‘ah Imami, the Zaydis had been regarded by them to have constituted the greatest number of Shi‘ah.
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The Origin of Shi‘ism
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
Diverse views have been expressed with respect to the origin and beginning of Shi‘ism, but in general, these views can be divided into two:
1. The writers and researchers who believe Shi‘ism was created after the demise of the Prophet (S) and who themselves can be subdivided into the following subgroups:
a. Those who believe that Shi‘ism has come into being during the day of Saqifah—that day when a group of prominent Companions explicitly said: “‘Ali is the most deserving one to the office of Imamate {imamah} and caliphate {khilafah}.”[37][56]
b. Those who regard the emergence of the Shi‘ah as being related to the latter part of Uthman’s caliphate, connecting the spread of the views of ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’ at this period with the beginning of Shi‘ism.[38][57]
c. Those who believe that the Shi‘ah has come into being on the day of Fitnah ad-Dar (the day when the third caliph was murdered). Thereafter, accordingly, the followers of ‘Ali (‘a) who were the very Shi‘ah who confronted the so-called “‘Uthmanis”, those who were avenging the murder of ‘Uthman. As Ibn an-Nadim thus writes:
When Talhah and Zubayr opposed ‘Ali and nothing could convince them but to take revenge for the murder of ‘Uthman, while ‘Ali also wanted to fight them so as to establish the truth, on that day those who followed him were called “Shi‘ah” and he himself thus described them: “They are my Shi‘ah”.[39][58]
Ibn ‘Abd ar-Rabbih al-Andalusi also says: “The Shi‘ah are those who regarded ‘Ali as superior to ‘Uthman.”[40][59]
d. Those who believe that Shi‘ism had come into existence from the coming into power, up to the martyrdom of ‘Ali (‘a).[41][60]
e. Those who link the origin of Shi‘ism with the event at Karbala’ and the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (‘a).[42][61]
2. The researchers who are of the opinion that Shi‘ism can be traced back to the period of the Messenger of Allah (‘a). Apart from all the Shi‘ah ‘ulama’,[43][62] some of the Sunni scholars also hold such a belief, just as Muhammad Kird-‘Ali—one of the distinguished Sunni ‘ulama’—says: “A number of the Companions during the time of the Holy Prophet (S) were known as Shi‘ah of ‘Ali.”[44][63]
Keeping in view of the opinions presented so far, it can be said that the event of Saqifah, the latter part of the caliphate of ‘Uthman, the Battle of Jamal (Camel), the rule of ‘Ali (‘a), and the events at Karbala’ are phases of the events that have influenced the history of Shi‘ism.
Although the existence of a person named ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’ is doubtful, the formation of Shi‘ism at these stages seems incorrect because studying the Prophetic traditions, we find that the term “Shi‘ah”, has been applied by the Messenger of Allah, Muhammad al-Mustafa (S), to the sympathizers of ‘Ali (‘a) before all these events, as recorded in many hadiths, some of which we shall cite below.
All these hadiths are accepted by the Ahl as-Sunnah as authentic and have been recorded in their hadith references. Take, for example, the hadiths which have been recorded by Suyuti—one of the Sunni exegetes {mufassirun} of the Qur’an—from the Holy Prophet (S) on the commentary of the verse:
﴿ إِنَّ الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا وَعَمِلُوا الصَّالِحَاتِ أُولَئِكَ هُمْ خَيْرُ الْبَرِيَّةِ ﴾
“Indeed those who have faith and do righteous deeds—it is they who are the best of creatures.”[45][64]
Among them is this hadith of the Prophet (S) when he said:
والّذي نفسي بيده إنّ هذا و شيعته لهم الفائزون يوم القيامة.
“By He in Whose hand my life is! Verily, this man (‘Ali) and his Shi‘ah shall secure deliverance on the Day of Resurrection.”[46][65]
The Holy Prophet (S) said to ‘Ali (‘a): “God has forgiven the sins of your Shi‘ah and the followers of your Shi‘ah.”[47][66]
The Prophet (S) also said to ‘Ali (‘a): “You and your Shi‘ah will meet (on the Day of Resurrection) at the Pool {hawdh} of Kawthar while having drank from it and having bright faces, whereas your enemies will meet me while they are thirsty and enchained.”[48][67]
In a long hadith regarding the virtues of ‘Ali (‘a), the Holy Prophet (S) thus says to his daughter Fatimah (‘a): “O Fatimah! ‘Ali and his Shi‘ah are the saved ones of tomorrow.”[49][68]
Similarly, the Messenger of Allah (S) said: “O ‘Ali! Your sins as well as that of your progeny, your Shi‘ah and the followers of your Shi‘ah have been forgiven…”[50][69]
Again, the Messenger of Allah (S) said: “O ‘Ali! During the Day of Resurrection, I shall cling to God while you shall hold fast to me; your descendants shall hold fast to you; and the Shi‘ah of your descendants shall hold fast to them.”[51][70]
The Prophet (S) again said to ‘Ali (‘a): “In the hereafter, of all the people, you are the nearest one to me… and the Shi‘ah are on pulpits on light…”[52][71]
Ibn al-‘Abbas narrated that Jibra’il (Archangel Gabriel) (‘a) gave the news that ‘Ali (‘a) and the Shi‘ah shall be brought to Paradise along with Muhammad (S).”[53][72]
Salman al-Farsi narrates that the Most Noble Messenger (S) said to ‘Ali (‘a):
O ‘Ali! Put a ring on your right hand so as to be with the nearest ones {muqarrabin}.” ‘Ali (‘a) asked: “Who are the nearest ones?” He (S) replied: “Jibra’il and Mika’il.” ‘Ali (‘a) again asked: “Which kind of ring shall I put on?” He (S) replied: “A ring whose stone is a red ‘aqiq because ‘aqiq is a testimony that one has acknowledged and accepted the divine servitude {‘ubudiyyah}, my prophethood {nubuwwah}, your guardianship {wisayah}, and your descendants’ Imamate {imamah}. Your followers are people of Paradise and the abode of your Shi‘ah is the Garden of Firdaws {jannah al-firdaws}.[54][73]
The Most Noble Messenger (S) again said: “Eighty thousand from my ummah shall be admitted to Paradise without reckoning.” ‘Ali (‘a) asked: “Who are they?” He (S) replied: “They are your Shi‘ah and you are their Imam.”[55][74]
Anas ibn Malik thus narrates from the Holy Prophet (S):
Jibra’il said to me: “God, the Exalted, loves ‘Ali to such a degree that is not expressed to any angel. Just as the tasbihs {glorifications to Allah} that are being uttered, God creates angels to seek forgiveness for the admirers and Shi‘ah of ‘Ali till the Day of Resurrection.”[56][75]
Jabir ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ansari narrates that the Prophet (S) said: “By God Who sent me in truth as the Prophet! The angels are regularly seeking forgiveness for ‘Ali and they pity him and his Shi‘ah as a father does (with respect to his child).”[57][76]
‘Ali (‘a) himself narrates that the Prophet (S) said: “O ‘Ali! Give glad tidings to your Shi‘ah that I am {their} intercessor {shafi‘} on the Day of Resurrection—the day when neither wealth nor child is of any benefit except my intercession {shafa‘ah}.”[58][77]
The Holy Prophet (S) said to ‘Ali (‘a): “The first four persons to enter Paradise are I, you, Hasan, and Husayn; our descendants are behind us; our spouses are behind our descendants and our Shi‘ah are on our right and left sides.”[59][78]
Finally, many of the Sunni muhaddithun and historians such as Ibn al-Jawzi, Baladhuri, Shaykh Sulayman al-Qanduzi al-Hanafi, Khwarazmi, and as-Suyuti have narrated that the Messenger of Allah (S) thus said while addressing ‘Ali (‘a): “Verily, this man (‘Ali) and his Shi‘ah shall secure deliverance on the Day of Resurrection.”[60][79]
There are even recorded traditions from the Most Noble Messenger (S) about some of the Shi‘ah and what is interesting here is that these have been narrated by the opponents of the Shi‘ah! For example, there is a tradition about Hujr ibn ‘Adi al-Kindi which has been narrated by ‘A’ishah. When Mu‘awiyah performed Hajj after killing Hujr and his companions and came to Medina, ‘A’ishah said to him:
O Mu‘awiyah! Where was your forbearance at the time of killing Hujr and his companions? Be aware that I heard that the Messenger of Allah (S) said: “There is a group that shall be killed in a place called Marj ‘Adhra’ for which Allah and the inhabitants of heaven will be filled with wrath.”[61][80]
Since these hadiths are undeniable and have been narrated by prominent Sunni muhaddithun, some Sunni writers have resorted to unjust interpretation of them. For instance, Ibn Abi’l-Hadid says:
What is meant by the Shi‘ah in many hadiths who have been given the glad tidings of Paradise are those who believe in the superiority and preeminence of ‘Ali (‘a) over others. For this reason, our Mu‘tazilite ‘ulama’ have thus written in their books and treatises, “We are truly the Shi‘ah” and this statement is nearer to reality and more akin to truth.[62][81]
Also, in the book, As-Sawa‘iq al-Mahriqah fi’r-Radd ‘ala Ahl al-Bid‘a waz-Zindiqah, which is a book rejecting the Shi‘ah creeds and beliefs, while quoting this hadiths, Haythami has said:
What is meant by the Shi‘ah in these hadiths are the Shi‘ah that no longer exist. It refers to progeny and followers of ‘Ali who are neither afflicted with innovation {bid‘ah} nor curse and abuse the Companions of the Prophet (S).[63][82]
In reply to him, the late Muzaffar says:
It is strange that Ibn Hajar imagined that what is meant here by the Shi‘ah are the Ahl as-Sunnah! And I do not know if the reason behind this is the similarity of “Shi‘ah” and “Sunni”. Or, it is because these two sects are identical. Or, it is for the reason that the Ahl as-Sunnah follow and love the family of the Prophet (S) more than the Shi‘ah do![64][83]
The late Kashif al-Ghita’ also says: “By applying the term “Shi‘ah” to the Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a), its purport can be understood because other than this group, there is no other Shi‘ah.”[65][84]
The existence of the term “Shi‘ah” in the hadiths and sayings of the Prophet (S) is clear and indisputable, and with these (unjust) interpretations, they wanted to conceal the truth but in the end they have deceived nobody but themselves. This is particularly true in view of the fact that the connotations of “Shi‘ah” has been clarified during the time of the Prophet (S) and a number of the Companions were known at the time as “Shi‘ah of ‘Ali”.[66][85]
The Companions of the Prophet (S) also referred to ‘Ali’s (‘a) followers as “Shi‘ah”. Hashim Marqal thus writes concerning a person named “Mahal ibn al-Khalifah at-Ta’i”: “O Commander of the Faithful! He is among your Shi‘ah.”[67][86]
The Shi‘ah themselves used to call one another as Shi‘ah. As Shaykh al-Mufid narrates, some people came to ‘Ali (‘a) and said: “O Commander of the Faithful! We are among your Shi‘ah.” He (‘a) in turn said: “The faces of my Shi‘ah turn pale on account of night vigil and their eyes weak due to weeping…”[68][87]
In many instances, Hadrat[69][88] ‘Ali (‘a) himself, as in the abovementioned case, used to apply the word “Shi‘ah” to his followers. For example, when he heard the news of martyrdom of some of his Shi‘ah in Basrah at the hand of Talhah and Zubayr, he (‘a) cursed the two and said: “O God! They have killed my Shi‘ah. Kill them too.”[70][89]
Even the opponents of ‘Ali (‘a) used to refer to his followers as “Shi‘ah”, just as what ‘A’ishah, Talhah and Zubayr said during their conversation about their route from Mecca to Iraq: “We shall go to Basrah and expel the governor {amil} of ‘Ali and kill his Shi‘ah.”[71][90]
In any case, the truth of Shi‘ism, which is the same love and fellowship to ‘Ali (‘a) and to regard him as superior (to others), is related to the time of the Prophet (S). He (S) used to enjoin the people in his speeches to follow ‘Ali and his family as exemplified by the event in Ghadir Khumm. As Ibn Abi’l-Hadid says: “This report {akhbar} has been narrated by muhaddithun none of whom has been accused of rafdh and Shi‘ism {tashayyu‘} and they have not even believed in the superiority and preeminence of ‘Ali (‘a) over others.”[72][91]
Now, we shall quote some of these hadiths. Buraydah Aslami says:
The Messenger of Allah (S) said: “God, the Exalted, has ordered me to love four persons and said to me that He also loves them.” They asked: “O Messenger of Allah! Tell their names.” He (S) said thrice: “‘Ali and then Abu Dharr, Miqdad and Salman.”[73][92]
At-Tabari narrates that in the course of the Battle of Uhud, the Most Noble Messenger (S) said: “‘Ali is from me and I from him.”[74][93]
It has thus been narrated on the authority of Umm Salmah: “When the Messenger of Allah (S) was angry, no one could dare to speak except ‘Ali.”[75][94]
Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqas narrated that the Most Noble Messenger (S) said: “He who loves ‘Ali loves me and he who loves me loves God. Also, he who is hostile to ‘Ali is hostile to me, and he who is hostile to me is hostile to God.”[76][95]
Ibn al-Jawzi narrated that the Holy Prophet of Islam (S) said: “O ‘Ali! You are the separator of heaven and hell. And you shall open the door of heaven and enter it without any reckoning.”[77][96]
Khwarazmi narrated in Al-Manaqib on the authority of Ibn al-‘Abbas that the Holy Prophet (S) said:
When I was brought to the heavenly ascension {mi‘raj}, I saw that it is thus written on the gate of heaven:
لا الٰه الاّ الله، محمّد رسول الله، علىّ حبيب الله، الحسن والحسين صفوة الله، فاطمة امة الله، على مبغضهم لعنة الله.
La ilaha illallah, Muhammadan Rasulullah, ‘Aliyyun Habib Allah Al-Hasan wa’l-Husayn Sifwat Allah, Fatimah Ummat Allah, ‘ala mabghadhuhum la‘nat Allah.[78][97]
Zubayr ibn Bakkar—who is among the grandchildren of Zubayr and known for deviation from the Commander of the Faithful (‘a)—has narrated that the Most Noble Messenger (S) said: “I enjoin anyone who believe in God and confirm my apostleship {risalah} to love ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib and recognize his guardianship {wilayah}. He who loves him loves me and he who loves me loves God.”[79][98]
Ibn Abi’l-Hadid narrates on the authority of Zayd ibn al-Arqam that the Most Noble Messenger (S) said: “I shall guide you to something which if it would be known to you, you shall never go astray. Your guardian {wali} and Imam is ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. Acknowledge him as Jibra’il thus informed me of it.”
After narrating this hadith, Ibn Abi’l-Hadid thus says:
If they would say, “This is an explicit proof for (Imam ‘Ali’s) Imamate {imamah},” how will then the Mu‘tazilites solve this problem? In reply, we say: It is possible that the Prophet means that ‘Ali is their Imam in religious edicts {fatawa} and laws {ahkam} and not in caliphate {khilafah}.
Similarly, what we quoted in the explanation of the statements of the great and leading Mu‘tazilite figures of Baghdad can be the answer, the gist of which is as follows: The Imamate and caliphate belonged to ‘Ali with the condition that he would show inclination to it and fight others for it. As he relinquished it to somebody and kept silent, we do accept the guardianship {wilayah} of the other person and believe in the legitimacy of his caliphate.
As the Commander of the Faithful did not raise any opposition against the three caliphs, did not unsheathe his sword and call on the people against the three, it follows then that he has approved their caliphates. It is based on this that we do accept them and believe in their purity, goodness and righteousness. If he would have waged war against them and called on the people to fight them, we would then believe in their transgression, deviation and misguidance.[80][99]
Lesson 4: Summary
Some writers regard Shi‘ism to have emerged on the day of Saqifah while others regard the same to be on the latter part of ‘Uthman ibn al-‘Affan’s caliphate. The third group believe that Shi‘ism came into being after the murder of ‘Uthman while the fourth group say that it has come into existence after the martyrdom of ‘Ali (‘a). The fifth group is of the opinion that Shi‘ism originated after the event in Karbala’.
Apart from the Shi‘ah ‘ulama’ as a whole, some Sunni scholars such as Muhammad Kird-‘Ali maintain that the root of emergence of Shi‘ism is during the lifetime of the Messenger of Allah (S) and it was the Prophet (S) who first applied the term “Shi‘ah” to the comrades of ‘Ali (‘a).
A number of Companions of the Prophet (S) were also known during that time as “Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a)”.
In addition to this, Shi‘ism is the same love and fellowship to ‘Ali (‘a) to which the Prophet (S) had enjoined his Companions on many occasions.
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The Other Terms for the Shi‘ah
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
After the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful ‘Ali (‘a) and with the spread of Shi‘ism, in addition to the name “Shi‘ah”, other appellations such as ‘Alawi, Imamah, Husayniyyah, ‘Ithna ‘Ashari, Khassah, Ja‘fari, Turabi, and Rafidhi were gradually applied to the friends of the family of the Prophet (S). Although the Ahl al-Bayt’s (‘a) adherents as a whole were called “Shi‘ah” as usual, these appellations and titles were also applied to the Shi‘ah on various occasions.
Sometimes, the enemies also used to give certain titles to the Shi‘ah with the aim of belittling and degrading them. During the time of Mu‘awiyah, for example, the Banu Umayyah and the people of Sham[81][100] used the epithet “Abu Turab” {literally, “Father of the Earth/Soil”} for ‘Ali (‘a) among all his epithets and sobriquets and they used to call his Shi‘ah as “Turabis”.
After the Battle of Siffin and the rule of ‘Ali (‘a), whenever Mu‘awiyah wanted to dispatch ‘Abd Allah ibn Hadhrami to Basrah, he would give instructions regarding the tribes but concerning the tribe of Rabi‘ah, he said: “Leave alone the Rabi‘ah as all of them are turabis.”[82][101] According to Mas‘udi, Abu Mikhnaf had a book entitled, Akhbar at-Turabiyyin, from which he has narrated the event of ‘Ayn al-Warad.[83][102]
The enemies of the Shi‘ah used to apply to them the label, “Rafidhi” and in most cases, whenever they liked to accuse somebody of abandoning religion, they would brand him a rafidhi, just as ash-Shafi‘i says:
إن كان رفضاً حبّ آل محمّد فليشهد الثّقلان أنّى رافضى
If loving the progeny {al} of Muhammad is rafdh, the two worlds (of mankind and jinn) shall therefore be the witness that I am indeed a rafidhi.[84][103]
It has been recorded in history that after the uprising of Zayd ibn ‘Ali, the Shi‘ah were then called Rafidhi. Shahristani thus says:
When the Shi‘ah of Kufah learned from Zayd ibn ‘Ali that he does not declare disavowal against the two sheikhs {shaykhayn} (Abubakr and ‘Umar) and regard as permissible the Imamate of a deserving one {mafdhul} in the existence of the most deserving one {afdhal}, they abandoned him. Therefore, they were then identified as Rafidhi because rafdh means “abandonment”.[85][104]
Regarding the label, ‘Alawi, Sayyid Muhsin Amin says:
After the murder of ‘Uthman and the confrontation between Mu‘awiyah and ‘Ali (‘a), the supporters and followers of Mu‘awiyah were called “‘Uthmanis” as they used to love ‘Uthman and be inimical to ‘Ali (‘a). In addition to “Shi‘ah”, the followers of ‘Ali (‘a) were also called “‘Alawis”, and this practice persisted till the end of the Umayyad rule. During the ‘Abbasid period, the labels “Uthmani” and “‘Alawi” were abrogated and only “Shi‘ah” and “Sunni” were used.[86][105]
“Imamis” was another term applied to the Shi‘ah usually in contradistinction to the Zaydis. As Ibn al-Khaldun writes,
Some Shi‘ah believe in explicit traditions substantiating the proposition that Imamate {imamah} is solely in the person of ‘Ali and after it will also be transferred to his descendants. They are Imamiyyah with aversion toward the two sheikhs {shaykhayn} (Abubakr and ‘Umar) for not considering ‘Ali as superior and not paying allegiance to him. They do not accept the Imamate of Abubakr and ‘Umar. Other Shi‘ah believe that God did not appoint a specific person but described the characteristics of the Imam which conform to the personality of ‘Ali and the people were at fault in not recognizing this. They do not abuse the two sheikhs and they are Zaydis.[87][106]
Keeping in view of the surviving poems from the supporters and companions of Imam al-Husayn (‘a), it can be discerned that after his martyrdom, his Shi‘ah and supporters were also called “Husaynis”. In many of their poems they introduced themselves as “Husaynis” or “of the religion of Husayn”.[88][107]
In this regard, Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih thus says: “Among the rafidhis are the Husayniyyah and they are companions of Ibrahim al-Ashtar who used to roam around the alleys of Kufah shouting: “Ya litharat al-Husayn!” They were called Husayniyyah.”[89][108]
Meanwhile, the term “Qat‘iyyah” {lit. “Decisiveness”} was applied to the Shi‘ah after the martyrdom of Imam Musa al-Kazim (‘a) in contradistinction to the Waqifiyyah.
That is to say that they were certain and decisive with respect to the martyrdom of Imam al-Kazim (‘a) and believed in the Imamate of Imam ar-Rida (‘a) and the Imams after him, whereas the Waqifiyyah were not convinced of the death of Imam al-Kazim (‘a).[90][109]
Nowadays, the label “Ja‘fariyyah” is applied to the Shi‘ah more on account of jurisprudence in contradistinction to the four Sunni schools of jurisprudence {madhahib}. The reason for this term is that the Shi‘ah jurisprudence took form more through Imam Ja‘far as-Sadiq (‘a) compared to all the Imams (‘a) and most traditions on our jurisprudence are narrated by him (‘a).
Nonetheless, keeping in view a poem we have from Sayyid Humayri, it can be understood that only on account of jurisprudence during Imam as-Sadiq’s (‘a) period the term “Ja‘fari” was applied to the Shi‘ah, but this term has also been applied to them in terms of principles of religion {usul} in contradistinction to other sects. The poem of Humayri is as follows:
تجعفرت باسم الله و الله أكبر
In the Name of Allah, I became a Ja‘fari, and Allah is the great.[91][110]
By becoming a Ja‘fari, Sayyid Humayri is referring to the correct course of the Shi‘ah Imamiyyah in contradistinction to the Kaysaniyyah.
The Status of ‘Ali (‘a) among the Companions {sahabah}
The Commander of the Faithful ‘Ali (‘a) occupied a special position among the Companions of the Prophet (S). Mas‘udi says:
In terms of all the virtues and merits that the Companions of the Prophet (S) possessed, such as precedence in Islam; hijrah {emigration}; helping the Prophet; kinship with him; contentment {qina‘ah}; sacrifice {ithar}; knowledge of the Book of Allah; jihad; piety {wara‘}; asceticism {zuhd}; judgment {qadha’}; jurisprudence {fiqh}; etc., ‘Ali (‘a) had abundant share and perfect delight.
This is apart from the fact that some of the virtues are possessed by him alone such as brotherhood {ukhuwwah} of the Prophet and statements of the Prophet such as: “You are to me as Harun (Aaron) is to Musa (Moses),” “Of whomsoever I am master {mawla}, ‘Ali is also his master. O God! Befriend him who befriends him and be inimical to him who is inimical to him”; and also the supplication of the Prophet for him; when Anas brought a cooked bird to the Prophet (S), he said: “O God! Let the most beloved creature (after him) come in so as to partake with me.” Then, ‘Ali (‘a) came in and partook with the Prophet. This is while the other Companions did not possess those virtues.[92][111]
Among the Banu Hashim, ‘Ali (‘a) was also the nearest person to the Prophet (S). He grew up in the house of the Prophet (S) and under his training.[93][112] He (‘a) slept in the Prophet’s (S) bed during the night of hijrah, returned to their respective owners the possessions entrusted to the Prophet (S) and joined the Prophet (S) in Medina.[94][113]
The most important of all is ‘Ali’s (‘a) position in Islam. The Most Noble Messenger (S) determined this position at the very beginning of the Prophetic mission.
When the Prophet received instruction from God to invite his kith and kin, it was only ‘Ali in the assembly who was ready to assist and accompany the Holy Prophet (‘a). Then, in that very assembly, the Most Noble Messenger (S) announced before the elders among his relatives that ‘Ali is the executor of his will {wasi}, minister {wazir}, caliph {khalif}, and successor notwithstanding the fact the he was the youngest among those who were present.[95][114]
The Holy Prophet (S) informed his Companions on several occasions of the status and position of ‘Ali (‘a), admonishing them to recognize his position. The Holy Prophet (S) was watchful of his their attitude toward ‘Ali (‘a) particularly after the spread of Islam when many individuals with diverse motives joined the ranks of Muslims. This is especially true with respect to the Quraysh whose envy toward the Banu Hashim had amplified by then. Ibn Shahr Ashub thus narrates on the authority of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab:
I used to annoy ‘Ali, the Prophet (S) once came to me and said: “You are annoying me, O ‘Umar!” I said: “I seek refuge in God from annoying the Messenger of Allah!” He said: “You are annoying ‘Ali and he who annoys him annoys me”.
Mus‘ab ibn Sa‘d has narrated from his father, Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas, that: “I and another person were in the mosque and we were abusing ‘Ali. Infuriated, the Prophet came to us and said: ‘Why do you annoy me? He who annoys ‘Ali annoys me’.”[96][115]
Haythami has narrated:
Buraydah al-Aslami, who is one of those who had gone to Yemen under the commandership of ‘Ali, says: “I went back to Medina earlier than the army. The people asked me: ‘What news?’ I said: ‘There is news. God made the Muslims victorious.’ They asked: ‘Why did you come earlier (than the army contingent)?’ I said: ‘‘Ali has allocated a bondwoman from the khums for himself. I have come to inform the Prophet of it…’
When the Prophet was informed of it, he was annoyed and said: ‘Why are some people belittling ‘Ali? Anyone who finds fault with ‘Ali finds fault with me. Anyone who would separate from ‘Ali has separated from me. ‘Ali is from me and I from him. He has been created out of my essence and I from the essence of Ibrahim (Abraham) though I am superior to Ibrahim… O Buraydah! Don’t you know that ‘Ali deserves more than one bondswoman? He is your guardian {wali} after me.[97][116]
Ibn Shahr Ashub also narrates a similar hadith from Sunni muhaddithun such as Tirmidhi, Abu Na‘im, al-Bukhari, and Musalli.[98][117]
As such, ‘Ali (‘a) had earned special respect among the Companions. Again, Ibn Shahr Ashub has thus narrated from Anas ibn Malik:
During the period of the Holy Prophet (S) whenever we wanted to know if a certain person is a bastard or not, we would know it from the spite of ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. After the Battle of Khaybar, every man would hug his child and go. If ever he would see ‘Ali along the way, he would point to ‘Ali with his hand to the child and ask him: “Do you like this man?” If the child would say, “Yes,” he would kiss his child and if the child would say, “No,” he would put the child on the ground and say, “Go to your mother!” ‘Ubadah ibn Samit also says: “We used to test our children with the love for ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. If we found out that one of them does not like him, we would know that he will never be an upright person.”[99][118]
During the latter years of the Prophet’s (S) life, the issue of ‘Ali’s (‘a) position was more publicized so much so that the title wasi {executor of one’s will} became one of his widely known titles, which was accepted by both his friends and foes especially after the Holy Prophet (S) said to ‘Ali (‘a) before going to the Tabuk expedition:
أنت منّي بمنزلة هارون من موسىٰ إلاّ أنّه لانبيّ بعدي.
“You are to me as Harun (Aaron) is to Musa (Moses) with the only difference that there shall be no prophet after me.”[100][119]
In the course of the Farewell Pilgrimage {Hajj al-Wida‘} in Mina and in ‘Arafah also, the Holy Prophet (S) informed the people in several speeches about twelve persons shall be his successors and all of whom are from Banu Hashim.[101][120]
Finally, on the return from Mecca in Ghadir Khumm, he (S) received instruction from God to announce the succession of ‘Ali (‘a) to all the Muslims. He ordered the Muslims to halt and mounting a pulpit made out of the camel saddles he delivered a long speech. He then said:
من كنت مولاه فهذا عليّ مولاه اللّهمّ وال من والاه و عاد من عاداه وانصر من نصره واخذل من خذله.
Of whosoever I am Master {mawla}, then ‘Ali is also his Master {mawla}. O Allah! Be Thou a Friend of him who is a friend of him (‘Ali), and be Thou an Enemy of him who is his enemy. Help him whoever helps him, and forsake him whoever forsakes him.
Then, he asked the people to pay allegiance to ‘Ali (‘a). ‘Allamah al-Amini has given a comprehensive explanation of this subject in the first volume of the book, Al-Ghadir.
In this manner, the Messenger of Allah (S) asserted his successor’s identity to the people. Thus, the public was of the opinion that after ‘Ali (‘a) would succeed (as the leader of Muslims) the Prophet (S) after his demise. In this regard, Zubayr ibn Bakkar says: “All the Muhajirun[102][121] and the Ansar[103][122] had no doubt that ‘Ali will be the caliph and master of the affairs after the Messenger of Allah (S).”[104][123]
This subject is so clear in the poems that have been recorded from the time of Saqifah and these poems bespeak of a smaller degree of distortion that has ever happened in poetry. ‘Utbah ibn Abi Lahab recited this poem after the event of Saqifah and Abubakr’s inauguration:
ما كنت أحسب أن الأمر منصرف عن هاشم ثمّ منها عن أبي حسن
أليس أوّل من صلّی لقبلتكم و أعلم النّاس بالقرآن و السّنن
و أقرب النّاس عهداً بالنبي و من جبرئيل عون له في الغسل و الكفن
ما فيه ما فيهم لايمترون به و ليس في القوم ما فيه من الحسن
ماذا الّذي ردهم عنه فنعلمه ها أن ذاغبناً من أعظم الغبن
I was not imagining that the caliphate affair would be withdrawn from the Banu Hashim and much less to Abu’l-Hasan (‘Ali).
Is he not the first person to pray facing your qiblah and of the people the most knowledgeable of the Qur’an and the Sunnah?
He is the last person to look at the face of the Prophet; Jibra’il (Archangel Gabriel) was his aid in bathing and enshrouding him (the Prophet).
They do not think about what he has and what they have; whereas within the community {qawm} there is nobody who possesses his points of goodness.
What is it that made them withdraw from him? Say that this loss of ours is the gravest of all losses!
After ‘Utbah’s recitation of this poem, ‘Ali (‘a) asked him not to recite it again and said: “For us the safety of religion is more important than anything else.”[105][124]
Ibn Abi ‘Abrah Qurshi has also said:
شكراً لمن هو باثناء قيق ذهب اللّجاج و بويع الصديق
كنّا نقول لها على و الرضا عمر و أولاهم بذاك عتيق
Thanks to Him Who is worthy to be praised! The dispute was no more and the allegiance was paid to Sadiq (Abubakr).
We were saying: “‘Ali is the owner of caliphate; we were also pleased with ‘Umar; but the best of them in this case is the old {‘atiq} (Abubakr)!”[106][125]
During the course of the dispute between the Ansar and Quraysh that had surfaced on the event of Saqifah, ‘Amru ibn al-‘As has spoken against the Ansar. In reply to him, Nu‘man ibn al-‘Ajlan—one of the poets of the Ansar—has recited a poem in which ‘Ali’s (‘a) right has been emphasized:
فقل لقريش نحن أصحاب مكّة و يوم حنين و الفوارس في بدر
و قلتم حرام نصب سعد و نصبكمعتيق بن عثمان حلال أبابكر
و أهل أبوبكر لها خير قائم و أن علياً كان أخلق بالأمر
و كان هوانا في عليٍّ و أنهلأهل لها يا عمر و من حيث لاتدري
فذلك بعون الله يدعو إلى الهدىو ينهى عن الفحشاء و البغي و النّكر
وصيّ النّبي المصطفى و ابن عمه و قاتل فرسان الضلالة و الكفر
Say to the Quraysh: “We are the army of (the Conquest of) Mecca and the Battle of Hunayn, and the cavalry of Badr!”
You said that appointment of Sa‘d to the caliphate is unlawful {haram}, but your appointment, ‘Atiq ibn ‘Uthman, of Abubakr is lawful {halal}.
{And you said:} Abubakr is the man of this task and can perform it well, but ‘Ali was the most deserving of people to the caliphate.
We were on ‘Ali’s side and he was the man for this job, but you do not understand, O ‘Amru!
This man (‘Ali), by the help of Allah, calls (us) toward guidance, and forbids perversion, oppression and evil.
He is the executor of will {wasi} of al-Mustafa the Prophet, his cousin, and the killer of the champions of disbelief {kufr} and misguidance {dhalalah}.[107][126]
With the aim of thanking Fadhl ibn al-‘Abbas who, under ‘Ali’s (‘a) order, had defended the Ansar, Hassan ibn Thabit has recited this poem:
جزى الله عنّا و الجزاء بكفّه أبا حسن عنا و من كان كابى حسن
سبقت قريشاً بالذي أنت أهل هفصدرك مشروح و قلبك ممتحن
حفظت رسول الله فينا و عهده إليك و من أولى به منك من و من
ألست أخاه في الهدى و وصيّهو أعلم منهم بالكتاب و بالسّنن
May God give good reward to Abu’l-Hasan for us as the reward is in his hand. Who, by the way, is like Abu’l-Hasan?
Concerning which you were a member, you were ahead of the Quraysh. Your breast is expansive and your heart tested (pure and sincere).
You preserved what the Messenger of Allah instructed regarding us. Except you, who could be foremost for him, and who could be?
Are you not his brother {akh} in guidance and the executor of his will {wasi}, and among them, the most knowledgeable of the Book and the Sunnah?[108][127]
Initially, Abu Sufyan opposed the institution of (Abubakr’s) as caliphate and defended the Commander of the Faithful (‘a). Apart from the speeches he delivered in this regard, he also composed the following poem:
بني هاشم لا تطمعوا النّاس فيكم و لا سيّما تيم بن مرّه أو عدي
فما الأمر الاّ فيكم و إليكم و ليس لها الاّ أبو حسن عليّ
O Bani Hashim! Do not allow others to get involve in your affair especially Taym ibn Murrah or ‘Adi.[109][128]
The affair of caliphate belongs to you alone and it is only Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali who is its man.[110][129]
Finally, on that very day of Ghadir Khumm, the Prophet’s poet, Hassan ibn Thabit, asked the Messenger of Allah’s (S) permission to narrate the event of Ghadir in poetry, and thus recites:
يناديهم يوم الغدير نبيّهم بخمّ واسمع بالرّسول مناديا
وقد جاء جبرئيل عن أمر ربّه بانّك معصوم فلاتك وانيا
و بلغهم ما أنزل الله ربّهم إليك و لا تخش هناك الأعاديا
و قام به اذ ذاك رافع كفّه بكف عليّ معلن الصوت عاليا
فقال فمن مولاكم و نبيّكم؟ فقالوا و لم يبدا أهناك التّعاميا
إلهكَ مولانا و أنت نبيّنا و لم تلق منّا في الولاية عاصيا
فقال له: قم يا عليّ فإنّني رضيتك من بعدي إماماً و هاديا
فمن كنت مولاه فهذا وليّه فكونوا له اتباع صدق مواليا
هناك دعا: أللّهمّ وال وليّه وكن للّذي عادى عليّاً معاديا
فيا ربّ انصر ناصريه لنصرهم إمام هدى كالبدر يجلو الدياجيا
Their Prophet calls on them on the day of Ghadir Khumm; now, listen to the call of the Prophet:
Jibra’il brought a message from God that “You are under the protection of God; so, do not be dejected.”
Convey what has been revealed by Allah, their Lord, and here do not be afraid of the enemies.
He raises ‘Ali along with him; while he raises the hand of ‘Ali along with his hand, he announces in a loud voice.
Then he said to the people: “Who is your Master {mawla} and your guardian {wali}? Then, without showing inattention, they said:
“Your Lord is our Master {mawla} and you are our guardian {wali}, and no one among us today disobeys you.”
Then he said: “Stand up O ‘Ali! For, I am indeed well pleased that you are the Imam and guide after me.”
{He then said:} “Therefore, of whomsoever I am master, ‘Ali is his master also. May you be their true supporters!”
He then prayed, saying: “O Allah! Be Thou a Friend of those who are his {‘Ali’s} friends, and be Thou an Enemy of those who are his enemies.
So, O Lord! Help his supporters as they help the Imam of guidance who is like the moon during a dark night”[111][130]
As is evident from this poem, in transcribing the Prophet of Islam’s (S) speeches about ‘Ali (‘a), Hassan has called him Imam, guardian {wali} and guide {hadi}, which clearly stipulates the leadership and headship of the ummah.
Yes, the masses of Muslims did not imagine that after the Holy Prophet’s (S) demise, somebody would contest ‘Ali (‘a) on the issue of caliphate and succession to the Prophet (S). As Mu‘awiyah has written in reply to the letter of Muhammad ibn Abubakr,
We and your father during the period of the Messenger of Allah (S) used to consider obedience to the son of Abu Talib as expedient for us and his virtues were not concealed to us. After the demise of the Prophet (S), your father and ‘Umar were the first persons to trample upon his position and called on the people to pay allegiance to them.[112][131]
This is why those who were not around Medina during the last months of the Prophet’s (S) life and were uninformed of the conspiracies—such as Khalid ibn Sa‘id and Abu Sufyan—were vehemently agitated when they returned to Medina, after the demise of the Prophet (S), to see Abubakr sitting in the Prophet’s (S) lieu introducing himself as the Prophet’s (S) caliph.[113][132] Even Abu Sufyan—when he returned from a journey and saw the situation as such—came to ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and ‘Ali (‘a) and asked them to revolt in order to get their rights but they refused.[114][133] Of course, Abu Sufyan has no intention in these moves.
In conclusion, although most of the Prophet’s (S) Companions recognized the caliphate of Abubakr officially, they did not forget ‘Ali (‘a) as being the most deserving {afdhal}. Whenever he was in the mosque, no know except him would issue edict {fatwa} on religious issues as they used to regard him as “the leading judge of the ummah” {aqdhi’l-ummah} as stipulated by the Most Noble Messenger (S).[115][134]
‘Umar used to say: “May God forbid that day when a problem would arise and Abu’l-Hasan is not present.”[116][135] As he used to say to the Companions of the Prophet (S): “Whenever ‘Ali is in the mosque, no one except him has the right to issue any religious edict.”[117][136]
Although after the demise of the Prophet (S), ‘Ali (‘a) was not able to acquire political power, his virtues and distinctions were narrated by the same Companions of the Prophet (S). Ibn Haythami—who is one of the staunched Sunni ‘ulama’—regarded the number of narrators of the hadith about Ghadir as 30 persons from among the Companions,[118][137] but Ibn Shahr Ashub has counted 80 narrators of the hadith on Ghadir from among the Companions.[119][138]
Meanwhile, the late ‘Allamah Amini has counted the following 110 narrators of the hadith on Ghadir from among the Companions:
Abu Hurayrah; Abu Layla al-Ansari; Abu Zaynab al-Ansari; Abu Fudhalah al-Ansari; Abu Qudamah al-Ansari; Abu ‘Umra ibn ‘Amru ibn Muhsin al-Ansari; Abu’l-Haytham ibn Tayyihan; Abu Rafi‘; Abu Dha’ib; Abubakr ibn Abi Quhafah; Usamah ibn Zayd; Uba ibn Ka‘b; As‘ad ibn Zurarah al-Ansari; Asma’ bint ‘Umays; Umm Salmah; Umm Hani; Abu Hamzah Anas ibn Malik al-Ansari; Bara’ ibn ‘Azib; Zubaydah Aslami; Abu Sa‘id Thabit ibn Wadi‘ah al-Ansari; Jabir ibn Sumayrah; Jabir ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ansari; Jublah ibn ‘Amru al-Ansari; Jabir ibn Mut‘am al-Qurshi; Jarir ibn ‘Abd Allah Bajli; Abu Dharr Jundab ibn Junadah;
Abu Junaydah al-Ansari; Hubbah ibn Jawin ‘Arni; Habashi ibn Junadah as-Saluli; Habib ibn Badil ibn Warqa’ Khaza‘i; Hudhayfah ibn Asid Ghaffari; Abu Ayyub Khalid ibn Zayd al-Ansari; Khalid ibn Walid al-Makhzumi; Khuzaymah ibn Thabit; Abu Sharih Khuwaylid ibn ‘Amru Khaza‘i; Rafa‘ah ibn ‘Abd al-Mundhir al-Ansari; Zubayr ibn ‘Awwam; Zayd ibn al-Arqam; Zayd ibn Thabit; Zayd ibn Yazid al-Ansari; Zayd ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ansari; Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas; Sa‘d ibn Junadah; Salmah ibn ‘Amru ibn Aku‘; Samrah ibn Jundab; Sahl ibn Hanif; Sahl ibn Sa‘d al-Ansari; Sadi ibn ‘Ajlan; Ḍamirah al-Asadi; Talhah ibn ‘Ubayd Allah;
‘Amir ibn ‘Amir; ‘Amir ibn Layla; ‘Amir ibn Layla al-Ghaffari; ‘Amir ibn Wathilah; ‘A’ishah bint Abibakr; ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn ‘Abd Rabbih al-Ansari; ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn ‘Awf al-Qurshi; ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn Ya‘mur ad-Dayla; ‘Abd Allah ibn Abi ‘Abd al-Athar al-Makhzumi; ‘Abd Allah ibn Badil; ‘Abd Allah ibn Bashir; ‘Abd Allah ibn Thabit al-Ansari; ‘Abd Allah ibn Ja‘far al-Hashimi; ‘Abd Allah ibn Huntab al-Qurshi; ‘Abd Allah ibn Rabi‘ah; ‘Abd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas; ‘Abd Allah ibn Abi ‘Awf; ‘Abd Allah ibn ‘Umar; ‘Abd Allah ibn Mas‘ud; ‘Abd Allah ibn Yamil; ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan;
‘Ubayd ibn ‘Azib al-Ansari; Abu Tarif ‘Adi ibn Hatam; ‘Atiyyah ibn Basar; ‘Uqbah ibn ‘Amir; ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib; ‘Ammar ibn Yasir; ‘Umarah al-Khazraji; ‘Amru ibn al-‘As; ‘Amru ibn Murrah Jahni; Fatimah bint Rasul Allah (S); Fatimah bint Hamzah; ‘Umar ibn Abi Salmah; ‘Umran ibn Hasin al-Khaza‘i; ‘Amru ibn Humq al-Khaza‘i; ‘Amru ibn Sharahil; Qays ibn Thabit al-Ansari;
Qays ibn Sa‘d al-Ansari; Ka‘b ibn ‘Ujrah al-Ansari; Malik ibn Huwayrath al-Laythi; Miqdad ibn ‘Amru; Najiyah ibn ‘Amru; al-Khaza‘i’ Abu Burzah Fadhlah ibn ‘Utbah Aslami; Nu‘man ibn ‘Ajlan al-Ansari; Hashim Marqal; Wahshi ibn Harb; Wahhab ibn Hamzah; Abu Juhayfah; Wahhab ibn ‘Abd Allah; and Yu‘la ibn Murrah.[120][139]
Among the narrators of the hadith on Ghadir, individuals who had hostile relationship with ‘Ali (‘a)—such as Abubakr, ‘Umar ‘Uthman, Talhah, ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn ‘Awf, Zayd ibn Thabit, Usamah ibn Zayd, Hassan ibn Thabit, Khalid ibn Walid, and ‘A’ishah—can also be noticed. Even those Companions who sometimes disagreed with him defended him against his enemies.
For example, Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas—who was among those who voted in favor of ‘Uthman and against ‘Ali (‘a) at the 6-man council after the death of ‘Umar, and did not extend cooperation with ‘Ali (‘a) during his caliphate and preferred neutrality—in his conversation with Mu‘awiyah, thus said to Mu‘awiyah:
“You fought and waged war with a person who was more deserving than you to the caliphate.” Mu‘awiyah asked: “Why?” He replied: “One reason is that the Messenger of Allah (S) said concerning: ‘Of whosoever I am Master {mawla}, then ‘Ali is also his Master {mawla}. O Allah! Be Thou a Friend to him who is a friend of him (‘Ali), and be Thou an Enemy to him who is his enemy,’ and other reasons are his virtues and merits.”[121][140]
Similarly, ‘Abd Allah, the son of ‘Amru ibn al-‘As, along with his father was in the army of Mu‘awiyah. When ‘Ammar ibn Yasir was killed and his head was brought before Mu‘awiyah, two persons were in dispute as each of them was claiming to have killed ‘Ammar. ‘Abd Allah said:
“It is better for one of you to relinquish his right to the other because I heard the Messenger of Allah (S) say: ‘‘Ammar shall be killed by a tyrant group’.” Mu‘awiyah was annoyed and said: “So, what is he doing here?!” ‘Abd Allah replied: “Since the Messenger of Allah (S) ordered me to obey my father, I am here with you, but I will not fight.”[122][141]
The presence of ‘Ammar in the ranks of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) whose killers had been described by the Messenger of Allah (S) as a tyrant group during that chaotic period was a clear testimony to the truthfulness of ‘Ali (‘a) so much so that even the son of ‘Amru ibn al-‘As admitted it.
Summary
After the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful ‘Ali (‘a), other names have also been given to the Shi‘ah. Contemptuous labels such as Rafidhi and Turabi were used by the enemies of the Shi‘ah with the aim of debasing them. Some other labels such as ‘Alawi, Imami, Husayniyyah, ‘Ithna ‘Ashari, Khassah, and Ja‘fari were applied to them as well.
‘Ali (‘a) had a distinguished position among the Companions of the Prophet (S) as well as being the nearest one to the Prophet (S) among the Banu Hashim. He grew up in the Prophet’s (S) house, and most important of all, the Most Noble Messenger (S) had appointed him as his minister {wazir} and successor {khalifah} and the masses of people were aware of it.
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The Role of the Quraysh in the Event of Saqifah
By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami
In spite of the event in Ghadir Khumm and the efforts of the Prophet (S) for the succession of ‘Ali (‘a), the gathering in Saqifah took place. The command of God was not executed and the family of the Prophet (S) was confined at home. In this event, the role of the Quraysh must be pointed out. It is because the Quraysh were the people who wanted and succeeded in trampling upon the right of the Prophet’s (S) progeny.
On many occasions, the Commander of the Faithful ‘Ali (‘a) emphasizes the acts of oppression and injustice of the Quraysh and their endeavors in gaining access to the caliphate.[123][142] In one of his correspondence with Mu‘awiyah, Imam al-Hasan (‘a) also described in detail the role of the Quraysh in the Saqifah event, saying:
After the demise of the Prophet (S), the Quraysh considered themselves as the tribe and the most nearest to him, and with this proof, they sidetracked the other Arabs and took hold of the affair of caliphate. When we, the Ahl al-Bayt of Muhammad (S), advanced the proposition to them, they did not behave justly with us and they deprived us of our right.[124][143]
Imam al-Baqir (‘a) thus also says to one of his companions:
What should we say about the oppression and injustice of the Quraysh against us, and our Shi‘ah and supporters? The Messenger of Allah (S) passed away while the people were asked, “Who are the most preeminent of people?” Yet, the Quraysh turned away from us to such an extent that they changed the course of caliphate. They utilized our argument against the Ansar and assumed the caliphate one after the other. When it was returned to us, they broke their oath of allegiance and waged war against us…[125][144]
Yes, the Quraysh had behaved this way since long time ago, so much so that the people knew they would take possession of the caliphate. For this reason, the Ansar rushed to the Saqifah so as to prevent the Quraysh from obtaining power because they were a monopolistic people.
The Reasons behind the Quraysh’s Enmity toward the Family of the Prophet (S)
Now, this question is posed: Why did the Quraysh have enmity toward the family of the Prophet (S)? Did they not owe their religion and the worldly life to this family? Was it not through the blessings of this family that they had attained salvation from perdition? In answering these questions, we shall indicate some points:
1. The Quraysh’s Ambition for Leadership
During the period of jahiliyyah {pre-Islamic ignorance} the Quraysh had an excellent position among the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula. In this regard, Abu’l-Faraj al-Isfahani says: “The Arab tribes used to consider the Quraysh as superior in everything except poetry.”[126][145] This status was attained through two means:
a. Economic Clout
From the time of Hashim, the great grandfather of the Prophet (S), Quraysh had already started trading with neighboring lands such as Yemen, Sham, Palestine, Iraq, and Abyssinia. The Quraysh nobles had amassed legendary wealth under the aegis of this trade.[127][146] God, the Exalted, described this commerce as the source of the Quraysh’s welfare and comfort, saying:
﴿ لإيلافِ قُرَيْشٍ ٭ إِيلافِهِمْ رِحْلَةَ الشِّتَاءِ وَالصَّيْفِ ٭ فَلْيَعْبُدُوا رَبَّ هَذَا الْبَيْتِ ٭ الَّذِي أَطْعَمَهُمْ مِنْ جُوعٍ وَآمَنَهُمْ مِنْ خَوْفٍ ﴾
“{In gratitude} for solidarity among Quraysh, their solidarity during winter and summer journeys, let them worship the Lord of this House, who has fed them {and saved them} from hunger, and secured them from fear.”[128][147]
b. Spiritual Position
Due to the existence of the Ka‘bah, the pilgrimage site of the Arab tribes in their territory, the Quraysh occupied a special spiritual position among the Arabs. Especially after the event of the Companions of the Elephant and the defeat of Abrahah[129][148] the honor of the Quraysh, the custodians of the Ka‘bah, was further enhanced and this event turned to be in their favor.
They called themselves as Al Allah {Family of Allah}, Jiran Allah {Neighbors of Allah} and Sakkan Haram Allah {Residents of the House of Allah} and in doing so, they consolidated their religious position.[130][149]
As such, on account of sense of power, the Quraysh were inclined to exclusivity and they tried to prove their superiority. Since Mecca was a sort of capital for the Arabs, owing to the presence of the Ka‘bah, and most of the denizens of the Arabian Peninsula used to come and go there, the Quraysh imposed their customs and traditions to those who came to Mecca.
One example regards the garment used when circumambulating the Ka‘bah {tawaf}, which the pilgrims were required to purchased from them.[131][150] Therefore, whenever they sensed, during the advent of the Most Noble Messenger (S), that teachings of Islam are not compatible with their sense of exclusivity and superiority, they refrained from accepting the teachings vehemently opposing these precepts with all their might and utilizing all their power to annihilate Islam.
But the will of God was something else, and in the end, He made His prophet (S) prevail over them. From the 8th year after hijrah, a number of the Quraysh nobles went to Medina and joined the ranks of Muslims, but they did not desist from their hostility.
For instance, Hakam ibn Abi’l-‘As used to ridicule the Prophet (S) and on account of which the Messenger of Allah (S) exiled him to Ta’if.[132][151] As the Quraysh were not able to confront the Prophet (S), they conceived a new plot and that was to confront his successor.
Time and again, ‘Umar said to ‘Abbas: “The Arabs did not want prophethood {nubuwwah} and caliphate {khilafah} to be confined to the Banu Hashim.”[133][152]
The Quraysh also said:
If anyone from the Banu Hashim took the reign of caliphate, caliphate will never slip out of this family and it will never be relinquished to us. But if a non-member of the Banu Hashim assumed it, it will move around us and be assigned to all of us.[134][153]
The people at that time were also aware of this mentality of the Quraysh. As narrated by Bara’ ibn ‘Azib, “I was sympathetic toward the Banu Hashim. When the Holy Prophet (S) passed away, I was afraid that the Quraysh was thinking of taking the caliphate out of the Banu Hashim and I was at a loss to understand.”[135][154]
The Quraysh’s approval of the caliphate of Abubakr and ‘Umar was motivated by their own benefits. For, at the time of his death, Abubakr said a number of Quraysh who have come to his support: “I know that each of you imagines that the caliphate shall belong to him, but I chose the best among you.”[136][155]
Ibn Abi’l-Hadid says: “Quraysh was displeased by the prolongation of the caliphate of ‘Umar, and ‘Umar was aware of this issue and he was not permitting them to go out of Medina.”[137][156]
2. Tribal Rivalry and Envy
One of the dire spin-offs of the tribal structure was intense struggle among the tribes, and God, the Exalted, points to this issue in some surahs of the Qur’an such as Surah at-Takathur[138][157] and Surah as-Saba’.[139][158]
Since the period of jahiliyyah, there had been a power struggle between the Banu Hashim and the rest of Quraysh tribes. On the event of digging the Zamzam well by ‘Abd al-Muttalib, the entire Quraysh tribes rallied together against the Banu Hashim and they were not ready to allow the honor of digging the Zamzam well to go to ‘Abd al-Muttalib alone.[140][159] Therefore, Abu Jahl used to say:
We used to compete with the Banu Hashim over the possession of nobility. They fed people; we fed them too. They gave riding animals to people; we also gave. They gave money; we also gave. It was to such an extent that we closely competed with each other, and we became like two racing horses. Then, they said: “There emerged from among us a prophet who receives revelation from heaven.” Now, how could we compete with him? By God! We shall never believe in him or recognize him.[141][160]
Umayyah ibn Abi’s-Salt, one of the nobles and great men of Ta’if and one of the Hunafa,[142][161] did not embrace Islam for the same reason. For many years, he had been waiting for the promised prophet to come. But he had been waiting as such so as to acquire this position himself. After becoming aware of the beginning of the Prophet’s (S) mission, he refrained from following him identifying the reason for this as shame of the women of Thaqif, saying: “For a long time, I was telling them: ‘I shall be the promised prophet.’ Now, how could I bear for them to see me following a youngster of Banu ‘Abd al-Manaf (referring to the Prophet (S))?”[143][162]
Yet, despite their will and envy, God lead His Prophet (S) to triumph crushing their pomp. After the 8th year hijrah, when most Quraysh nobles had emigrated to Medina, their irritation and envy toward the family of the Prophet (S) were mostly the result of instigation of these “new Muslims”.
Ibn Sa‘d has narrated thus:
One of the Muhajirun said many times to ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib: “Your father ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Ghaytalah, Banu Sahm’s female fortune-teller, were both in the fire. Finally, ‘Abbas was infuriated and slapped him. As a result, his nose bled. That person came to the Prophet (S) and made a complaint against ‘Abbas. The Messenger of Allah (S) asked his uncle ‘Abbas to explain and ‘Abbas complied. Thereafter, the Prophet (S) said to that man: “Why are you annoying ‘Abbas?”[144][163]
Due to his special position, ‘Ali (‘a) was the most envied by them. Imam al-Baqir (‘a) says: “Whenever the Holy Prophet (S) mentioned the virtues of ‘Ali (‘a) or recited a verse of the Qur’an which was revealed concerning him, some of those who were in the assembly would stand up and leave.”[145][164]
As such, the Holy Prophet (S) has been reported many times to have said: “He who is envious of ‘Ali is envious of me and he who is envious of me is an infidel {kafir}.”[146][165]
Even during the time of the Prophet (S), some would even express their envy and would actively annoy and disturb ‘Ali (‘a). Along this line, Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas has thus narrated: “Another person and I were in the mosque and we were abusing ‘Ali. While furious, the Prophet came to us and said: ‘Why do you annoy me? He who annoys ‘Ali annoys me’.”[147][166]
3. The Quraysh’s Enmity toward ‘Ali (‘a)
Finally, the most important reason for depriving ‘Ali (‘a) was Quraysh’s opposition and enmity toward him as they had suffered heavy losses from him, for, in battles during the time of the Prophet (‘a), ‘Ali (‘a) had killed their unbelieving fathers, brothers and relatives. As Ya‘qubi writes concerning the events on the initial days of the caliphate of ‘Ali (‘a):
All the people paid allegiance to him except three persons from among the Quraysh: Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Sa‘id ibn al-‘As and Walid ibn ‘Uqbah. On their behalf, Walid said to Commander of the Faithful (‘a): “You have inflicted a blow to all of us. You slaughtered my father after (the Battle of) Badr. You killed the father of Sa‘id in the battle and as Marwan’s father returned to Medina,[148][167] you complained to ‘Uthman.”[149][168]
Similarly, during ‘Ali’s (‘a) caliphate ‘Ubayd Allah ibn ‘Umar requested Imam al-Hasan (‘a) to visit him and he has appointment with him. When Imam al-Hasan (‘a) paid him a visit he said: “Your father has inflicted a blow to the first and last person of Quraysh and the people are hostile to him. Help me to depose of him and let you come in his stead.”[150][169]
When Ibn al-‘Abbas was asked why the Quraysh are hostile to ‘Ali (‘a), he said: “It is because ‘Ali sent the first among them to the fire {of hell} (by killing them in battles while in a state of unbelief {kufr}) and put to shame the last among them.”[151][170]
The rivals of ‘Ali (‘a) also kindled the fire of this displeasure of Quraysh toward him thus taking advantage of it. For instance, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab said to Sa‘d ibn al-‘As: “You are staring at me in such a manner as if I killed your father, but I did not. It is ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib who has killed him!”[152][171]
After receiving a fatal blow at Ibn al-Muljim’s hand, ‘Ali (‘a) himself pointed out the magnitude of Quraysh’s enmity toward him in a poetical line:
تكم قريش تمناى لتقتلني فلا و ربّك مافازوا و ما ظفروا
“The Quraysh wished to kill me, but they did not succeed to do so.”[153][172]
Summary
The role of the Quraysh in the event of Saqifah cannot be overlooked. It is because the Quraysh were the only people who could appropriate from themselves the right of the Prophet’s (S) progeny. On many occasions, the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) points to the wrongdoings he experienced from Quraysh. Quraysh’s enmity toward the family of the Prophet (S) was motivated by the following:
1. Quraysh’s ambition for leadership which prompted them to refuse to accept his invitation as such an acceptance was inconsistent with their leadership.
2. The existence of rivalry between Banu Hashim and the rest of Quraysh tribes and the latter’s envy toward the former.
3. Quraysh’s enmity toward ‘Ali (‘a) for inflicting major blows to them.