Self-defense Research Paper

[Monica Okane]

From2000 to 2010, more than 20 states passed laws that make it easier to use lethal force in self-defense. Elements of these laws include removing the duty to retreat in places outside of one's home, adding a presumption of reasonable belief of imminent harm, and removing civil liability for those acting under the law. This paper examines whether aiding self-defense in this way deters crime or, alternatively, increases homicide. To do so, we apply a difference-in-differences research design by exploiting the within-state variation in law adoption. We find no evidence of deterrence; burglary, robbery, and aggravated assault are unaffected by the laws. On the other hand, we find that homicides are increased by around 8 percent, and that these homicides are largely classified by police as murder. This suggests that a primary consequence of strengthened self-defense law is a net increase in homicide. Finally, we present back-of-the-envelope calculations using evidence on the relative increase in reported justifiable homicide, along with assumptions about the degree and nature of underreporting, to assess whether the entire increase was legally justified.

We would like to thank Scott Cunningham, Steve Puller, Joanna Lahey, Erdal Tekin, Chandler McClellan, and Jonathan Meer for providing helpful comments and suggestions. We would like to thank Mark Seaman for providing excellent research assistance. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

Does Strengthening Self-Defense Law Deter Crime or Escalate Violence? Evidence from Expansions to Castle Doctrine (with Cheng Cheng) Journal of Human Resources 2013, 48(3): 821-854. citation courtesy of

The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense (BPP) was founded in October 1966 in Oakland, California by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, who met at Merritt College in Oakland. It was a revolutionary organization with an ideology of Black nationalism, socialism, and armed self-defense, particularly against police brutality. It was part of the Black Power movement, which broke from the integrationist goals and nonviolent protest tactics of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The BPP name was inspired by the use of the black panther as a symbol that had recently been used by the Lowndes County Freedom Organization, an independent Black political party in Alabama.

The National Archives and Records Administration contains over 2,400 records relating to the Black Panther Party. Most of these records are textual records, but there are also motion pictures, sound recordings, and photographs.

Barbara Easley-Cox began working with the Black Panther Party as a student at San Francisco State University. She met and married Donald L. Cox, the Field Marshal of the Black Panther Party, and immediately became more closely affiliated with the Party. In addition to leading the Oakland chapter, they also worked in the New York and Philadelphia chapters as well. After Donald was accused of conspiracy to murder a Panther who was found to be an informant, the couple fled to Algeria and then to North Korea. Easley is credited with helping to spread the international reach of the Party. She later moved to Germany, where she published the newspaper Voice of the Lumpen, worked with soldiers, and lived there until 1973. Upon her return to the United States, Easley moved to Philadelphia where she focused on community development work. After her retirement from social work, Easley continued to consult and volunteer in a variety of community-based capacities which she continues today.

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Global research about empowerment self-defense (ESD)-a sexual assault resistance intervention recommended as a component of a comprehensive sexual assault prevention strategy-continues to emerge, with studies reporting positive effects, including reduced risk of sexual assault victimization. Researchers have suggested ESD may produce additional positive public health outcomes beyond the prevention of sexual violence, but more research is needed to understand the benefits associated with ESD training. However, to conduct high-quality research, scholars have suggested a need for improved measurement tools. To better understand these measurement gaps, the purpose of this study was to identify and review measures used in ESD outcome studies; and in doing so, to determine the range of outcomes previously measured in quantitative studies. Within the 23 articles meeting study inclusion criteria, there were 57 unique scales that measured a range of variables. These 57 measures were grouped into nine construct categories: assault characteristics (n = 1); attitudes and beliefs (n = 6); behavior and behavioral intentions (n = 12); fear (n = 4); knowledge (n = 3); mental health (n = 8); any past unwanted sexual experiences (n = 7); perception of risk and vulnerability (n = 5); and self-efficacy (n = 11). Except for mental health, most scales were developed in the Global North using college student populations, so measures for diverse populations (e.g., diverse in age, culture, ethnicity, geographical origin) are critically needed. Future research should focus on identifying and/or developing standardized tools that measure the full constellation of targeted outcomes. Evaluation of the methodological quality of studies assessing psychometric performance of the tools should also be prioritized.

In this paired research paper and policy brief, Southern Voices Network for Peacebuilding scholar Ansoumane Samassy Souare examines the changing nature of security threats in the Central Sahel region and provides policy recommendations.

Nadeau, L. N. (1997). Self-defense education and community oriented policing: The R.A.D.ical combination. Law Enforcement Trainer. 12: 10-13.

Women and children are victims of countless acts of violence daily; one of every eight women has been the victim of forcible rape. Therefore, police agencies and public safety departments have an obligation to educate the community they serve about violence, how to reduce the risks of violence, and the many options for deterring violence. Self-defense includes an array of options, ranging from awareness and risk-reduction strategies to the self- preservation act of compliance in certain situations. Instructors should avoid giving rigid step-by-step guidelines. Instead, they should provide enough basic information and physical practice to enable people to make their own objective decisions about what is appropriate in a particular situation. Instructor certification is the single most important decision a police agency. R.A.D. Systems is well researched, structured, responsible, defensible, and dynamic. Founded in 1989, it has been endorsed by the International Association of Campus Law Enforcement Administrators. It has certified almost 2,000 instructors, who have taught the programs to more than 45,000 women and children nationwide. Instructors create drills and scenarios to enable participants to develop and refine critical strategies. It covers risk reduction, avoidance, confrontational dynamics, physical defense principles, personal weapons of the body, and selected target areas designed to stun an aggressor and allow the student to escape. The program uses a simulation training suit and creates the chaotic elements of real confrontation.

Ross, E. N. (1996). Never be a victim: The practice of psychological self-defense. Point Roberts, WA, Hartley and Marks Publichers, Inc.

One chapter develops the concept of the mind/body connection as an important factor in effective self-defense. Topics discussed include how belief can cause physical change, how the mind/body imbalance affects achievement, and facing a life- threatening assault. Another chapter instructs readers in how to control the circumstance that lead to victimization by learning to alter possible risk-producing behavior and by understanding how becoming a victim of crime may not always be just a matter of bad luck or being in the wrong place at the wrong time. A chapter on reducing victimization risk focuses on threats both while inside and outside the home. Three chapters focus on issues pertinent to self-defense under the threat of rape, including gang rape and date/acquaintance rape. Other chapters address the self-defense rewards of relaxation, the use of guided imagery in preparing for self-defense under various threats, techniques for disabling an assailant, self-defense techniques appropriate for the disabled and the elderly, and survival techniques in specific threatening situations.

Fein, J. (1993). Exploding the myth of self-defense: A survival guide for every woman. Sebastopol, CA, Torrance Publishing Co.

The author emphasizes the need for women to overcome their fear of rape by addressing their fears of physical fighting and developing personal power. The manual outlines ways to avoid being a target of rape or other violence, how to recognize the signs of a potential attack, how to defuse potentially dangerous situations, and how to be assertive. It also focuses on lethal and nonlethal weapons, street harassment, carjacking, and related safety issues. Additional sections discuss myths many women have believed since childhood, the psychology of empowerment, ways to avoid specific types of violence, and sexual harassment and discrimination in the military and the workplace.

According to the Pew Research Center, 48 percent of gun owners say they own a gun mainly for protection. But for years, experts have been divided over how often people actually use guns in self-defense. The numbers range from the millions to hundreds of thousands, depending on whom you ask.

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