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Vietnam,[d][e] officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV),[f] is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about 331,000 square kilometres (128,000 sq mi) and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's fifteenth-most populous country. Vietnam shares land borders with China to the north, and Laos and Cambodia to the west. It shares maritime borders with Thailand through the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia through the South China Sea. Its capital is Hanoi and its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City (commonly referred to by its former name, Saigon).
Vietnam went through prolonged warfare in the 20th century. After World War II, France returned to reclaim colonial power in the First Indochina War, from which Vietnam emerged victorious in 1954. As a result of the treaties signed between the Viet Minh and France, Vietnam was also separated into two parts. The Vietnam War began shortly after, between the communist North Vietnam, supported by the Soviet Union and China, and the anti-communist South Vietnam, supported by the United States. Upon the North Vietnamese victory in 1975, Vietnam reunified as a unitary socialist state under the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in 1976. An ineffective planned economy, a trade embargo by the West, and wars with Cambodia and China crippled the country further. In 1986, the CPV initiated economic and political reforms similar to the Chinese economic reform, transforming the country to a socialist-oriented market economy. The reforms facilitated Vietnamese reintegration into the global economy and politics.
Vietnam is a developing country with a lower-middle-income economy. It has high levels of corruption, censorship, environmental issues and a poor human rights record; the country ranks among the lowest in international measurements of civil liberties, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion and ethnic minorities. It is part of international and intergovernmental institutions including the ASEAN, the APEC, the CPTPP, the Non-Aligned Movement, the OIF, and the WTO. It has assumed a seat on the United Nations Security Council twice.
The form Việt Nam (越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trnh. The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Hải Phng that dates to 1558.[22] In 1802, Nguyễn Phc nh (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his rule, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer on him the title 'King of Nam Việt / Nanyue' (南越 in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor refused because the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue, which included the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to call the area "Việt Nam" instead,[g][24] meaning "South of the Viet" per Classical Chinese word order but the Vietnamese understood it as "Viet of the South" per Vietnamese word order.[15] Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.[g] It was revived in the early 20th century in Phan Bội Chu's History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ).[25] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when the imperial government in Huế adopted Việt Nam.[26]
Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age. Stone artefacts excavated in Gia Lai province have been claimed to date to 0.78 Ma,[27] based on associated find of tektites, however this claim has been challenged because tektites are often found in archaeological sites of various ages in Vietnam.[28] Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.[29] The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.[30][31][32] Teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have been found at Dong Can,[33] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,[34][35] Lang Gao[36][37] and Lang Cuom.[38] Areas comprising what is now Vietnam participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archeological research.[39][40][41][42]
By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation in the Ma River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of Đng Sơn culture,[43][44] notable for its bronze casting used to make elaborate bronze Đng Sơn drums.[45][46][47] At this point, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Lang and u Lạc appeared, and the culture's influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Maritime Southeast Asia, throughout the first millennium BC.[46][48]
From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Dai Viet. First, the Chinese-supported Mạc dynasty challenged the L dynasty's power.[74] After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the L dynasty was nominally reinstalled. Actual power, however, was divided between the northern Trịnh lords and the southern Nguyễn lords, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s.[75] Vietnam was divided into North (Trịnh) and South (Nguyễn) from 1600 to 1777. During this period, the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Central Highlands and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta.[71][73][76] The division of the country ended a century later when the Ty Sơn brothers helped Trịnh to end Nguyễn, they also established new dynasty and ended Trịnh. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led by Nguyễn nh. Nguyễn nh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long.[76]
Between 1615 and 1753, French traders also engaged in trade in Vietnam.[81][82] The first French missionaries arrived in 1658, under the Portuguese Padroado. From its foundation, the Paris Foreign Missions Society under Propaganda Fide actively sent missionaries to Vietnam, entering Cochinchina first in 1664 and Tonkin first in 1666.[83] Spanish Dominicans joined the Tonkin mission in 1676, and Franciscans were in Cochinchina from 1719 to 1834. The Vietnamese authorities began[when?] to feel threatened by continuous Christianisation activities.[84] After several Catholic missionaries were detained, the French Navy intervened in 1843 to free them, as the kingdom was perceived as xenophobic.[85] In a series of conquests from 1859 to 1885, France eroded Vietnam's sovereignty.[86] At the siege of Tourane in 1858, France was aided by Spain (with Filipino, Latin American, and Spanish troops from the Philippines)[87] and perhaps some Tonkinese Catholics.[88] After the 1862 Treaty, and especially after France completely conquered Lower Cochinchina in 1867, the Văn Thn movement of scholar-gentry class arose and committed violence against Catholics across central and northern Vietnam.[89]
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.[90] By 1884, the entire country was under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.[91][92] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[93] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values.[94] Most French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly in Saigon, and in Hanoi, the colony's capital.[95]
During the colonial period, guerrillas of the royalist Cần Vương movement rebelled against French rule and massacred around a third of Vietnam's Christian population.[96][97] After a decade of resistance, they were defeated in the 1890s by the Catholics in reprisal for their earlier massacres.[98][99] Another large-scale rebellion, the Thi Nguyn uprising, was also suppressed heavily.[100] The French developed a plantation economy to promote export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee.[101] However, they largely ignored the increasing demands for civil rights and self-government. An increasing dissatisfaction, even led to half-hearted, badly co-ordinated, and still worsely executed plots to oust the French, like the infamous Hanoi Poison Plot of 1908.
A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders like Phan Bội Chu, Phan Chu Trinh, Phan Đnh Phng, Emperor Hm Nghi, and Hồ Ch Minh fighting or calling for independence.[102] This resulted in the 1930 Yn Bi mutiny by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ), which the French quashed. The mutiny split the independence movement, as many leading members converted to communism.[103][104][105]
The French maintained full control of their colonies until World War II, when the war in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1940. Afterwards, the Japanese Empire was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam while the pro-Vichy French colonial administration continued.[106][107] Japan exploited Vietnam's natural resources to support its military campaigns, culminating in a full-scale takeover of the country in March 1945. This led to the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 which killed up to two million people.[108][109]
In 1941, the Việt Minh, a nationalist liberation movement based on a communist ideology, emerged under the Vietnamese revolutionary leader Hồ Ch Minh. The Việt Minh sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese occupation.[110][111] After the military defeat of Japan in World War II and the fall of its puppet government Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, Saigon's administrative services collapsed and chaos, riots, and murder were widespread.[112] The Việt Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.[111]
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