RAM KATHA and RAM BHAKTI THEN and NOW - interesting article by Saral Jhingran
Irfan Engineer
RAM KATHA and RAM BHAKTI THEN and NOW
Saral Jhingran
The story of Ram has been popular, especially in North India, for more than a millennium; but it has become more prominent and overwhelming since the movement for, and then the construction of, grand Ram temple in Ayodhya, and the claim of to-day’s ‘Ram-bhaktas’ that Ram is the only God of Hindus (nay, of all Indians). This creates several theoretical and historical problems: First, Ram has been recognized as the avatar of the Supreme Godhead, but so have a few other gods, as Shiv, Krishna, and some form of the Goddess. Second, Ram’s recognition as an incarnation of the Supreme Godhead came much later in the history of Hinduism, when Shiv and Krishna were already being worshipped. Third, though popularity of the story of Ram does prove his existence, but it does not prove the exact spot where he was born. Hence, the need for re-visiting the story of Ram as it developed during a long period of Indian history. In revisiting Ram’s story my idea is not to contradict present day claims but, to search for the truth of Ram’s life and character, as also the understanding of the same by earlier writers and devotees.
The story of Ram, or various forms thereof unfolded and became standardized during long centuries in the Post-Vedic period. It is found in various traditions, both heterodox and orthodox. A correlated issue is the gradual growth of the conception of Ram as the avatar or incarnation of Vishnu, in other words, the superimposition of the idea of Ram as the avatar on the prevailing story of Ram’s life. The cult of Ram bhakti started very late in the Bhakti tradition, but once it became recognized, it took North India by storm. (It was not as widespread in the South.)
I
The Sources and Various Forms of the Story of Ram Through the Ages
The story of Ram was quite popular in both heterodox and orthodox traditions.1
Significantly, it kept changing with changes in society’s cultural and moral norms, as also in historical conditions. We shall come to these changes in the course of our discussion. Here I am leaving out the heterodox tradition of Jains, where the story seems to be quite popular since the various versions of story have not been recognized by orthodox Hindus.
I.i Ram in Orthodox Sanskrit Religious Literature
Valmiki Ramayana (2nd cent, B.C. to 2nd cent. A.D.) is the oldest work on Ram katha in orthodox Sanskrit religious literature. But it has apparently undergone several transformations, including additions, editing and rewriting. In its original version it did not have Bal-kand and Uttar-kand, but ends at Ram’s return to Ayodhya and his coronation, giving a happy ending.
Ram’s story as found in the Mahabharat is also important for our study. Its famous Ramopakkyan narrates the story of Ram in detail. It is narrated by Markandeya to Yudhisthir as an example how even great people suffer. Significantly it ends with Ram’s coronation, and does not refer to Sita vanvas. Of course, there is no mention of Ram being the avatar of Vishnu. However, in Aranyak- parva and Shanti-parva of the Mahabharat, there is mention of Ram being the avatar of Vishnu. Since the Mahabharat is admittedly a later work, it can be assumed that within a few centuries of the Ramayana, the idea of Ram being a Divine incarnation was growing. However, the absence of any such idea in the Ramopakhyan may suggest that this idea was being suggested, but was probably not fully established.2
Harivansha (4th or 5th century) is another important source of the story of Ram. It believes in Ram as an avatar, and Ram-rajya. Markandeya, Matsya Agni, Vayu (5th cent.) and Kurma (7th cent.) Puranas refer to Ram and Sita without many details. The Vishnu Purana (4th cent.) gives a brief story of Ram (Section IV, Chapter 4).
The Bhagavat Purana (7th century) gives a somewhat more detailed version of Ram katha (Section IX, Chapters 10-11). It also describes the story of Sita being banished to the forest by Ram. Yoga Vashistha Ramayana (10th cent.) narrates Vashistha teaching Ram the way of vairagya and jnana in order to achieve moksha! It accepts Ram as the avatar of Vishnu.
Adhyatma Ramayana ( 4th or 15th cent.) is an influential work. It is given in the form of Shiv-Parvati dialogue, and declares not only Ram as the avatar of Vishnu but also acknowledges Sita as the incarnation of Prakrti (God’s Shakti) etc. It shows Ram as worshipping Shiv-ling; and also asserts that Ravana abducted not the real Sita but the illusory one created by maya.3
This period when the story of Ram was being finalized shows three differences from the early versions of Ram’s story: First, of course, is the fact that unlike the early versions, as in Valmiki Ramayana etc., Ram is now declared an avatar of Vishnu. Second, as far as I could make out, none of these works, except Adhyatma Ramayana, advocates bhakti (devotion) to Ram. Third, all of them believe that Ram did banish Sita to the forest for fear of ill fame (lokopavad). Some of them even feel that Sita’s abduction by Ravana is a real blot on her character, so they invent the story that it was not the real Sita that was abducted but one created by maya. Not only this idea is too fantastic, it makes the appeal of Ram’s grief at her separation and subsequent story somehow less convincing. In view of the fact that Valmiki Ramayana, in its original form, had not given the story at all, these later versions express the later (medieval period’s) socio-moral values, in which woman’s purity (satitva) became gradually most important
This period was followed by a period when a large number of Ramayanas started being written. Adbhut Ramayana and Anand Ramayana were written in 15th century. onwards. Tattvasamgraha Ramayana; Maha Ramayana, Vedanta Ramayana and Satyopakhyana are other works dealing with Ram katha, written near about seventeenth century.
All such works believe in the above details, but are different from earlier works in an important way, as they express a very marked influence of Krishna bhakti tradition. Ram’s bal lila (playful activities as a child); child Ram showing Kaushalya his universal form (virat rupa) are directly taken form the Krishna bhakti tradition. More important, Ram is shown as enjoying the pleasures of love (sambhog) with Sita. In some works he is also shown as taking part in the love –dance (ras lila) along with Sita and her friends! Some even tell us that Ram had a large number of wives just like Krishna! 4
All these additions to the story of Ram not only express the unrestrained flight of imagination of the writers of these later Ramayanas, they also somehow diminish the ideal character of Ram as maryada- purushottam; as also the profundity of the sentiment of bhakti as it was experienced and expressed by bhakta saints, as Surdas and Tulsidas. (In parenthesis let me say that even the descriptions of Krishna lila in the tone of conjugal pleasures (shrangar ras) must be the result of a similar flight of imagination by petty poets who did not know what bhakti means.)
1.ii. Ram in Sanskrit Literature
Kalidas’ Raghuvansha (early 5th cent.) includes the story of Sita’s banishment to the forest by Ram, and carries the story till the last, i.e. Ram’s going to Heaven (svargarohana). But it does not give any suggestion of Ram’s being an avatar of the Godhead. Bhattikavya or Ravanvadh (7th cent.) asserts the Narayanatva (divinity) of Ram. Janakiharana (8th or 9th cent.) gives descriptions of the dalliances of not only Ram and Sita but also of Dasharath and his queens in the srangar ras tradition! Bhavbhuti wrote Mahavir carita and Uttar Ram carita in 8th century in the form of drama. Mahavir Carita ends at Ram’s rajyabhiseka (coronation); but UttarRam carita, gives the story of Ram sending Sita to the forest. However, in the last scene, situated in Valmiki ashram, Ram and the citizens of Ayodhya gather to watch a drama written by Valmiki giving the true story of Sita, realize their mistake and Ram takes Sita back. Another drama, Kundamala, written probably by Dingnang about the same time gives the same version of the story of Ram and Sita in greater, rather unsavory details.
Anarghraghav by Murari (9th century); and Balaramayana by Rajshekhar (10th cent) give the story of Ram only till Ram’s return to Ayodhya. Another famous drama-Mahanatak or Hanumannatak (10th cent) also does not give the story of Sita vanavas. These dramas avoid the unpleasant episode of Sita’s banishment,
In Kashmir, Kshemendra (11th cent.) first wrote Ramayana Manjari, and Dasavatar caritam which includes the story of Ram till the end, i.e. their going to Heaven (svarga). Ram’s being an avatar is emphasized.
Ramlingamrta by Advaita Kavi, must have been written approximately at the same time as Tulsidas’ work, or a little later (16th cent.). Ram being an avatar is accepted, but Shiv is also given an important place. In the last Chapter Ram and Krishna and Ram and Shiv are declared identical. Raghavollas, written by Advaita Kavi (whether the same or a different person) ends at Ram’s marriage and return to Ayodhya. It not only accepts Ram as an avatar but also emphasizes Ram bhakti.5
It should be noted here that--First, though Ram’s story is very old, his being an avatar is recognized very late, approximately by 7th or 8th century. Actually, Adhyatma Ramayana is the first work which mentions it clearly. Second, the idea of Ram bhakti is even later. Third, Sita’s banishment to forest by Ram is one blemish in his ideal character which most poets and dramatists feel uncomfortable with. Most of them end the story with Ram-Sita’s return to Ayodhya and his coronation. Those who take the story further tell us that Sita was taken back by Ram after her purity was further proved in Valmiki ashram. This suggests a sensitiveness to women which was perhaps lost in the then culture.
In contrast, this sensitiveness is absent from the Puranas which gloat over the story of Sita’s vanavas , or the glory of a regressively conceived satitva (woman’s purity and loyalty). Obviously, the writers of Puranas were more conservative, orthodox and regressive. Unfortunately, it was the Puranas that have had a far greater influence on the masses, thus resulting in women being given a very low status in society.
1.iii. Ram’s Story in South Indian Languages
In Tamil language the oldest work on this subject is Ramayana by Kambar (12th cent.).,
which mostly follows Valmiki Ramayana. In Telgu language, Ram’s story was written with the name Dvipad Ramayana (14th cent) and Bhaskar Ramayana (14th century) . Both give the story as in Valmiki Ramayana. The most popular work is Molla Ramayana, by a ‘lower caste’ woman, which expresses Ram bhakti.
The first work on Ram katha in Malayalam language is Iramcaritam (14th cent.). There are two or three more works named Ramayana which are more or less a translation of Valmiki Ramayana. The most popular work on Ram is Adhyatma Ramayana (early 17th cent.).
In Kannada language there is Torave Ramayana by Narhari (16th cent.) which generally follows the South Indian version of Valmiki Ramayana, but differs from it also. It is suffused with the sentiments of bhakti to Ram. During the same period Jaimini Bharat was written by Lakshmi Shastri which gives very sensitive description of Sita vanavas.6
1. iv Ram in Modern North Indian Languages
Earliest versions of the story of Ram are found in Assamese, Bengali and Oriya Languages. In Assamese the most popular Ram katha is Madhavkandali Ramayana. Interestingly, it is written by three authors- Madhavkandali, Shankardev and Madhavdev.
It gives the full story of Ram, including Sita vanavas, till the end. Later on Durgavar wrote Giti-ramayana (16th cent) in which the emotionally moving incidents of Ram’s life are sensitively portrayed in songs. Anantkandali wrote several works on separate incidents of Ram katha; and proclaimed that he was writing them with the specific purpose of establishing Ram as Param Brahman, and Ram bhakti as the way to Him. Though works on Ram continued to be written till nineteenth century; but generally Krishna bhakti has been more popular in Assam.
In Bengali the most important work on Ram is Sri Ram Pancoli by Krtivas (15th cent.), also known as Krtivas Ramayana. Though Krtivas Ramayana gives the story of Ram mostly according to the northern or Gaudiya version of Valmiki Ramayana, it makes considerable changes in the development of the story in order to accommodate Ram bhakti. For example, it tells of the conversion of Valmiki, and Ram- nam being written in the chest of Hanuman. As a result of the creed of Ram bhakti becoming more popular, additions were continuously being made to it with the specific intention of proving Ram’s being an avatar of Vishnu. Even rakshasas are shown as worshipping Ram. In seventeenth century, several works were written on Ram, which were mostly influenced by Adbhut Ramayana and Adhyatma Ramayana. However, Krishna bhakti has been more popular in Bengal throughout this period. Separate songs were written on Ram lila (playful activities) in the style of Krishna lila. Two quite modern works are worth mentioning - Ramrasayana by Raghunandan (19th century), and Meghnadvadha by Michael Madhusudan Datt (20th century).
Thika Ramayana gives the whole story. In the same period. Dhananjay wrote Raghunath Vilas, and Shankardas wrote Baramasi Koili. The latter describes the pining of Kaushalya for her son Ram during his 14 years’ absence. The story of Ram was being written all through this period till recent times. 7
In Oriya language Sarladas (15th century) is said to have written a Ramayana which is not available. But he also wrote Mahabharat in which he has given Ram’s story in detail. Another well-known work is by Balramdas (16th century.) Both not only assert Ram’s being an avatar of Vishnu, they also contend that the other main characters of Ramayana are also incarnations of various other gods and goddesses. Balramdas further asserts identity between Ram and Krishna. He also wrote two long poems- Kantkail and Kakpoi in which Sita’s grief at separation from Ram is sensitively described.
In Marathi language the oldest work is Bhavarth Ramayana by Eknath (end of 16th century.) It is based on the North Indian version of Valmiki Ramayana, though it takes incidents from other Ram kathas, especially Anand Ramayana. It also has several other sub-stories, not found in the above works, and might have been influenced by Jain versions thereof. In seventeenth century several works were produced, like Yuddha-kand by Krshnadas; Samksepa Ramayana by Mukteshvar; Ramayana by Madhav Swami; Ramayana by Venabai; Laghu Ramayana, Sundarkand and Yuddhakand by Samarth Ramdas. In early eighteenth century Ramvijay by Sridhar; and several Ramayanas by Moropant were produced.
In Gujarati language, due to the influence of Krsna bhakti tradition, epic narrations are not found. Works on Ram katha include Ramlila na Pado by Asaet (4th cent.); Ramvivah and Rambalcarita by Bhalana; Ramayana by Mandada Bandasie (15th century); Ravana-Mandodari Samvad by Lavanya (16th cent.); Sita-Hanuman Samvad by Uddhav; and Lavkusakhyan by Naker (both 16th cent.) Sitavirah by Haridas (17th cent.) etc. In nineteenth century Girdhar wrote Ramayana which is quite popular.
In Kashmiri language, Ramayana was written by Diwakar Bhatt (18th century). It gives the story of Ram till the end. It emphasizes Ram as the Purnavatar (one who embodied the Divinity in it totally), and accepts other significant characters as incarnations of other gods. It gives the story of Sita as being the daughter of Mandodari abandoned by her (!); and Ram doubting Sita’s character; and Sita finally disappearing into the earth. 8
However, it is in Hindi that Ram katha found its greatest exponent in Goswami Tulsidas. Before we come to Tulsidas, we must acknowledge the contribution of Ramanand (14th century) to Ram katha and Ram bhakti. Unfortunately, not much is known about him. He was the disciple of Raghvanand, belonging to Ramanuja tradition, who first brought Vaishnava bhakti to the North. While Ramanuja had affirmed the bhakti of Vishnu, Ramanand introduced and popularized the worship of Ram as an avatar of Vishnu, He wrote two treatises in Sanskrit Vaisnavamatab-bhaskar and Sri ramarcariopaddhati. He also initiated the tradition of preaching and writing in the vernacular language, and several works in Hindi are attributed to him. His one song, included in the Guru Granth Saheb describes beautiful mystical experience which implies the concept of Brahman as nirguna present in every heart.
Krshnadas Payahari was the third in this tradition. Agradas was his disciple and successor. He is said to have written four or five books, including Dhyanmanjari and Ramastayam. He expresses a strong strain of shringar ras (conjugal love) in his bhaki, though it also has an element of das bhakti (the devotion of a slave) also. Nabhadas was from South India, but he came and settled down in Rajasthan, as Agradas’ disciple, and wrote in Braja bhasha. He has written the famous Bhaktmal, the stories of various bhaktas (devotes). Like Agradas he was also a devotee of Ram and his devotion is a combination of two kinds of bhakti-- prem (love) and das bhkati. Before him Vishnudas wrote Bhasa Valmiki Ramayana in fifteenth century, which is a free translation of the same in Hindi poetry. Significantly it tells the story only up to Ram’s coronation, and leaves out the later story of Sita- vanvas.
The poetry of Surdas, the self-avowed devotee of Radha and Krishna comes as a pleasant surprise and expresses the large heartedness and comprehensiveness of the devotion of these bhakta saints. Surdas’ padas (poems) about Ram are of two types -those dealing with devotion, and those dealing with Ram katha. The first kind of poems are collected in the first section (skand) of Sursagar; while the second kind are given in the ninth section. The latter consists of 158 poems dealing with the Ram katha. Though they are independent poems but they maintain the same sequence as the story of Ram. Surdas has specially selected the more emotionally moving events of that story and given very sensitive word pictures of them. He has often given his own interpretation of some of the events also. He accepts Ram as the avatar of Vishnu but, rejects the story of Uttarkand relating to Sita’s banishment. He also contends that it was not the real Sita but only her shadow which was abducted by Ravana. Equally important, Surdas, who has portrayed Krishna as a participant in the relation of intense love of Radha and gopis, with Krishna, has portrayed Ram as maryada-purushottam. 9
Of course, this Ram katha and Ram bhakti found its most profound and beautiful expression in Tulsidas. Tulsi’s Ram katha is unique and most important among the portrayals of story of Ram for several reasons. First, after Valmiki Ramayana, his Ramcharit-manas is the most comprehensive work written in a dialect of Hindi (Awadhi) in a beautiful literary style of poetry. Second, he not only declares Ram as the avatar of Vishnu or the Supreme God, he presents him as the epitome of all virtues, the maryada-purusottam. Not only Ram, every single character in the Epic of his is the embodiment of highest virtue (shila). Even those characters which play the part of villains in the story, such as Kaikeyi and all rakshasas, somehow do not cross the limits of maryada. (moral restraint). Ramcarit-manas thus, presents the utmost conceivable ideal for every character role in life. Third, not only Ramcarit-manas, but his entire poetry is written in a socio-moral context, and expresses a healthy world and life affirmation. Fourth, his Epic and other poetry are the greatest and most inspiring expressions of Ram bhakti. Its value lies in presenting God in His saguna (qualified) form in a way that He seems close and accessible to us.
Ramcarit-manas, thus, is a work which portrays both the ideal of Ram bhakti and the ideal of humanity. It is the most popular and influential work in Hinduism in entire North India. Maryada (socio-moral restraint and virtue) is the central concept of the Epic. Ram is the maryada-purushottam, an epitome of virtue and self-restraint. His attitude and conduct in every situation in life epitomize virtue or maryada. Take for example, the occasion of his father being forced to banish him to the forest. His calm and self-restraint are superlative. He takes the same attitude when Bharat comes to him in Chitrakut with the request to come back to Ayodhya. He replies that their father had to choose between truth (satya, here the obligation to keep his promise) and love (prem) for him, and he rightly chose the former. So he would also do the same. The sense of duty and self-restraint determines all his behaviour.10 Ram takes special care to put Kaikei at
her ease, pays his respects to her first before his own mother; and so on.11 However, his self-restraint is not that of stoics or Advaita samnyasis. We find his grief at Sita’s abduction, and Lakshmana’s being hurt in the war only too humane and touching. That is why, the traditional story of Ram banishing Sita to the forest seems to be out of character for Ram, and Tulsidas rightly rejected it.
Every character in the Ramacarit-manas is similarly a paradigm of virtue and maryada. Kaushalya, whose only son was being banished to the forest due to Kaikei’s insistence, does not say a single word against her; and repeatedly tells her that it is God’s
wish, and no one is to blame.12 Bharat is another character embodying renunciation, intense sense of duty, righteousness, and brotherly love. His entire life, as portrayed in the Epic, symbolizes the highest conceivable form of duty, truth and love. Bharat’s intense grief at finding Ram gone when he returns from his maternal grandparents’ place; and his superlative humility and persistent request to Ram to return to Ayodhya while he would live in the forest in his place are the most emotionally and spiritualizing events of the Epic. 13
Tulsidas also presents an ideal socio-political order. It is there as the background of the entire epic. He was a great supporter of varnashrama dharma, which mostly means division of society into various varnas, and every varna strictly following not only the hereditary profession but also the social norms attached to his/her varna. Tulsi’s insistence on varnashrama dharma as a necessary condition for social stability and even happiness can be rightly criticized as too orthodox and regressive.
However, he softens the rigour of his varnashrama based social order by first describing the gentle and loving behaviour of the ‘upper caste’ persons towards the ‘lower caste’ ones; and second, by describing how there was no distinction between high and low in the Ram-rajya. There is a scene in the Manas when while going for the search
of Ram in the forest, guru Vashishtha meets Kevat who had earlier met Ram and embraces him.14 Actually, Kevat is one of the leading characters in the Ayodhya-kand. Other beautiful and sensitive scenes of the Epic, as Ram eating the wild berries at the hands of Shabri, who out of intense love for Ram tastes them first to examine their quality and then offers them to him, express the vision how bhakti, love and a humane understanding of dharma transcend all social and caste barriers for the devotee saint Tulsidas.15
His description of Ram-rajya similarly tells us that “Ram pratap vishamta khoi”, that is, all distinctions and controversies were finished due to the spiritualizing influence of Ram’s rule. Though all human beings follow their svadharma (duty according to varnashrama), they at the same time love each other-“Sab nar karahin paraspar priti.”16
One of the greatest contributions of Tulsidas was his insistence on a strong world-and-life-affirmation. Tulsi’s Ram is not the transcendent Brahman of the Advaitin, or that of some mystic saints like Kabir, Tukaram and Namdev. Ram is the supreme God who has taken birth as a human being to destroy the evil persons and establish the rule of righteousness (Ram rajya) on earth. All characters of Manas play their role in a socio-moral context. Though Tulsidas himself had left his home, he never extols samnyasa, and all his ideals and preaching, including his support for varna dharma, are offered with a view to social stability and harmony. The virtue of maryada can be practised only in an interpersonal context, and so on. Ishvardas wrote Bharat Milap (first half of 16th century) in which Bharat is portrayed as the paradigm of das- bhakti (devotion as obedience to the master.)
After Bhakti kal (period when saints and people around them were sincerely committed to devotion to one God) which ended approximately by mid seventeenth century, Hindi literature lost it vigour and inspiring power, and became a mere description of various aspects of conjugal love (shringar ras or sambhog) in an artificially flowery language. This period is known as Riti kal. However, it also saw Hindi translations of various Sanskrit works concerning Ram katha. In later seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries Yoga Vashistha, Padmpurana and Adhyatma Ramayana were translated in early Hindi prose.
In eighteenth century there were some works with Ram bhakti as their central theme, such as Ramrasayan by Rasikbihari; Ramswayamvar by Raghurajsingh etc. In nineteenth century, we get Sriramavatar by Shivaratna Shukla, Ram Madaiya by Vansidhar Jyotshi.
It is only in twentieth century that we get mature epics in khadi boli (standardized form of Hindi); such as Ramcarit Cintamani by Ram Upadhyaya; Saket by Maithilisharana Gupt; Kaikeyi: by Kedarnath Mishra; Saket Sant by Baldev Prasad Mishra and Urimila by Balkrishna Sharma ‘Navin’.
The great contribution of these recent Epic works is that they have taken up the stories of those characters, such as Laksmana-Urmila; Bharat- Mandavi and Kaikeyi, who have so far been neglected by other writers of Ram katha. As these works are not written form the point of view of Ram bhakti, therefore they do not concern us here.
II
Ram Bhakti Tradition
II.i. In an interesting thesis Ninian Smart has argued that theism was not indigenous or generic to Hinduism but entered it when an injection of devotionalism was introduced therein.17 The argument is quite cogent into which we cannot enter here due to the restraint of space . However, this is true that the tradition of theistic bhakti has emerged quite late in Hinduism. We have had either polytheism from Vedas to Dharma-shastras and Puranas, or extreme monism of Shamkar Vedanta.
The tradition of bhakti or total devotion to the God (or the conception of God, as God is only one) can be traced to the Bhagvadgita (early centuries of the Christian era) and then the Bhagavat Purana (8th cent.) According to this tradition,
1 The Absolute (Brahman) of Vedanta is also a personal God (Ishwar). He is both nirguna ( without tangible qualities, or transcendent) and saguna (with qualities which may include human form). The transcendent God takes up human form (avatar)
2. Compassion for His entire creation, especially for His devotees, and Divine grace (kripa) are His chief qualities.
3. Only means of ensuring this grace is bhakti (devotion), conceived in terms of prapatti (complete self-surrender to God).
4. Every human being is an adhikari of bhakti, that is, has the right to practise it, and finally acquire His grace.
5. Equally important, religion in its purest form of ekantik- bhakti ( one-pointed, selfless- love of one God) was integrated with a moral way of life. You need not renounce the world to love and meet God, but a life of righteousness and rectitude in this world is a prerequisite of sincere bhakti.
These bhakta (devotee) saints, from Namalvar , Andal (far South) to Tukaram and Namdev (Maharashtra) to Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas and Mira (North) to Shankardev (East), were not particular about ontology or metaphysics. Most of them subscribed to a vague form of Ramanuja’s Vishishthadvaita which got diluted further and came close to Madhva’s Dvaitadvaita, if the devotee was a worshipper of Saguna God in human form as Ram or Krishna; but came nearer Shamkar’s Advaita in case of Nirguna bhaktas as Kabir.
. It is only with Ramanand (14th century) that Ram bhakti could be said to have started properly. Unfortunately not much is known about him. He was the disciple of Raghvanand belonging to Ramanuja tradition. Ramanad’s special contribution is the declaration that all human beings, irrespective of their caste or sex, are equally the adhikari ( entitled to) of adopting the path of devotion. Significantly, he acknowledged two kinds of conception of God as equally true- Nirguna and Saguna. As a result, we find the bhakta saints of both Nirguna and Saguna Brahman in his sect. He combined jnana and yoga of the North and bhakti (as praptti or total self surrender) to the Divine of the South. He is said to have started the Vairagi sect in the North, which somehow does not fit in his creed of devotion.
Though Ramanand used the popular name of Ram for his God, he generally does not seem to imply Ram of Ayodhya in his Sanskrit works. We can briefly accept three great contributions of Ramanand—first, the conception of Absolute as a Personal God of love and grace; second, the assertion that selfless devotion alone can lead to God, and not renunciation (vairagya), or knowledge (jnana); and third, his revolutionary opening the doors of bhakti to all human beings, irrespective of all traditional differences.
There was a surge of preaching, practicing and writing of bhakti songs in two major dialects of Hindi, either by his direct disciples, or under his influence throughout the North. The Bhakti tradition was divided between the devotees of Nirguna and Saguna conceptions of the one God. Of the two major sects within Saguna bhakti tradition, those of Ram and Krishna, the latter started and spread much before that of Ram. Very early Krishna became identified with Vasudeva and Narayana, and thus came to be recognized as the avatar of the Supreme God. The Bhagvadgita is well known to have declared Krishna as the Supreme himself who takes birth as a human being from time to time to relieve the misery of the inhabitants of the earth The Bhagvat Purana similarly declares him as the avatar of Vishnu, the Supreme Lord .18 Even the Alvar saints of the South were mostly devotees of Krishna. The name of Ram does not find any place in Patanjali bhashya and Amar Kosha. In some other lists of avatars, often Ram is not mentioned.
At the same time, even in the early centuries of Christian era, Ram is frequently recognized as an avatar. Both Narayaniya of the Mahabharat and Harivansha, as we have seen above, accept Ram as an avatar of Vishnu. Still somehow the tradition of devotion to Ram did not became popular. The Adhyatma Ramayana declares Ram as God, but curiously it is written from an Advaitic point of view. Thus while Ram as an avatar of Vishnu was acknowledged for a long time, Ram became an object of devotion and central figure of an independent sect quite late, earliest by eleventh century, as R.G. Bhandarkar argues. 19
It is only with Ramanand (14th century) that Ram bhakti could be said to have started properly. At first, Nirguna bhakti was more popular, its greatest exponent being Kabir (15th cent.) followed by Dadu, Nanak and others (16th century). In Saguna bhakti tradition, Krishna bhakti became more popular first (approximately early 16th century) followed by Ram bhakti. The greatest exponents of the first were Surdas and Mira; and of the second was Tulsidas.
In the Ram bhakti tradition (parampara) Tulsidas is the greatest poet of all times, not only in Hindi but also for the whole of India. He was a disciple of Naraharidas. He propagated the conception of Ram as maryada purusttom, the paragon of virtue and dignity; and accordingly Ram bhakti was understood by him as devotion of a slave to his Master (dasya bhakti). Krishnadas Payahari was another Ram bhakta. He and his disciple Agradas propagated Ram bhakti in terms of conjugal love. However, the overwhelming influence of Tulsidas was such that Ram bhakti tradition came to be understood and spread only as the devotion of a creature to his Lord. As mentioned earlier, Tulsidas’ Ram is maryada-purushottama the epitome of all virtues and self-restraint. Tulsidas’ Ram is not only the avatar of the Supreme God, but God himself. He is omnipresent, both in the universe and in our hearts. In a truly monotheistic approach, Tulsidas has declared in the very beginning of the Ramcrit-manas that the Parmeshvar who is of the nature of Sat-cit-anand and is the last abode of all, has taken the human form which is actually divya (heavenly) on earth. He repeats the Gita’s idea that Brahman takes up human form (here Ram) to destroy the evil from earth and protect the good. 20 Shiv tells Parvati that Bhagvan is present in every place; there is no place where He is not present.21 Equally significant is the fact that though both Surdas and Tulsidas worship their respective ishta devta (Deity of one’s choice) Krishna or Ram, both have written in detail about the other deity in a very worshipful tone. We have mentioned Surdas’ portrayal of the story of Ram. Tulsidas similarly devotes a whole work- Gitavali to describe the lilas (playful activities) of Krishna in a very sincere style. That is, both, as well as others of the Saguna bhakti tradition, were fully aware that these incarnations, being of one and the same Supreme God, are in fact identical.
On several occasions Tulsidas has asserted that Ram and Krishna, or Ram and Siva are one and the same. Equally significant, he declares that there is no difference between Saguna and Nirguna (Sagunahi Nirgunahi nahin kachu bheda). The same Brahman who is attribute-less, without form, beyond experience takes on form for the sake of his devotees. As the same water becomes hails, similarly the same Brahman becomes a God with form.22 God is also immanent even though it is difficult to conceive a personal God as immanent, Tulsidas affirms this on several occasions. In the very beginning of Ramcari-tmanas::
Knowing all conscious and unconscious beings to be filled with the presence
of Ram and Sita, with folded hands I salute their lotus fect.23
Elsewhere he gives an even more philosophical picture of the Saguna Brahman (God):
O Lord, you are both the God and the seeker, the Creator of the entire universe,
as well as the omniscient Lord of it. You are present in the entire creation as
thread in the cloth, or earth in the pot, or gold in the gold ornaments.24
The greatest contribution of Ram bhakti tradition is the emphatic affirmation of an integral relation between sincere piety or religion and a high level of morality. This relation was acknowledged in Vedanta, but was neglected in the Brahmanic ritualistic tradition, and completely disappeared in the Puranas. Petty rituals were offered in the latter as the panacea for all evils and nothing else was required. Bhakti tradition re-established morality or righteousness (dharma) as the necessary prerequisite of a religious life. All bhaktas, from Alvars of the South to those of the West and the North, were called saints because the profundity of their religio-spiritual achievement was matched by their moral purity.
And yet, no other saint, whether of Saguna or of Nirguna Bhakti tradition, emphasized the relation between true bhakti and high moral character, as Tusidas, and following him the entire Ram Bhakti tradition did. In his Epic Tulsidas leaves no opportunity to moralize. This practice obstructs the narration of the story, but tells us how important an ideal moral conduct, characterized by self-restraint, truth, and compassion, was for him. In the Ayodhya kand of his Epic, Ram is shown as going to Valmiki ashram and asking him to suggest some place for their stay during their vanvas. At this Valmiki gives a long list of virtues of saints; and tells him that he, along with Sita and Lakshmana, should dwell in the hearts of such saints. These virtues are both religious and moral, such as constant remembering of Ram, yearning for him, absence of evil passions (as desire, anger pride etc.); remaining the same in pleasure and pain, condemnation and praise; and compassion and good will for all beings.25
The Vinay Patrika is a collection of devotional poems with the one theme of the prayer of Tulsi to his God, in which he confesses of his many evil tendencies, and he prays to his God to save him from his own weaknesses. In each single poem he describes Ram as Dayalu (kind) to the fallen, or any one who comes to his refuge:
”Tu dayalu din haunh, tu dani haunnh bhikhari….”26
, ‘dani, ‘patit- pawan’ ’dayalu’ are the adjectives used constantly to describe Ram, his God. Not even once there is any suggestion of Ram as the destroyer of enemies. Tulsi would accept that role of Ram, but would say that it is not His prime personal quality.
In a large number of poems in which Tulsidas condemns himself as a sinner, he repeats the list of vices, including selfishness, pride, envy and such other vices; thus implying that freedom from these vices is what true bhakti is all about. In a beautiful verse, he seeks the company of saints, and describes them as ones who are quiet (shanta), without maya, free from all restraints, as well as from the extremes of gunas (here worldly qualities), free from attachments, possessing knowledge (jnana) of Brahman, and looking upon all with equanimity. They are also those who are always eager to do good to all.
Though Krishna bhakti saints would agree with the above description of true devotees of God, generally there is no emphasis on moral rectitude as integral to bhakti in that tradition. It is because bhakti to Krishna is conceived as prem (love) which is a one to one relation; other members of the society do not come into the picture. Since prem is no less selfless, and even more self-transcending than das bhakti, mystics or Krishna bhakta saints would be incapable of evil. Yet, this cannot be denied that the manner in which interpersonal morality and personal moral rectitude are emphasized in the Ram bhakti tradition , as exemplified in Tulsidas, is unparalleled, not only in the Bhakti tradition but perhaps in the entire spectrum of mysticism in the world.
Two things stand out in the Ram Bhakti tradition which at once distinguish it from other Bhakti sects, and make it an ideal corrective to today’s Indian (Hindu) society. First is the conception of Ram as maryada-purushottam who is the paragon of all virtues, especially shila (humility) and maryada (self restraint). This conception of Ram is in sharp contrast to the one that is being promulgated by his contemporary ‘bhaktas’ as a Ram in constant raudra mudra (angry expression). True, Ram also destroyed evil persons (rakshasas), but reading Tulsi’s Ramcarit-manas, the picture of Ram that comes to our mind is that of a person with a saumya (quiet and soft) face, with his right hand raised with palm open in abhaya mudra (giving assurance of his kindness to all) and expressing a very gentle nature. In his Ram rajya,, as described earlier, all members of society love (priti) each other, and are not aggressive at all.
Secondly, Tulsidas’ insistence on high moral character as integral to bhakti, discussed earlier, presents an ideal religion which is absent from today’s society.
III
. Some Observations
We have two topics for our study: Ram Katha and Ram Bhakti . I will discuss first the story of Ram from early times to the present day; and the cult of Ram bhakti during the same periods.
III.i. (a) Ram Katha: Then and Now:
I would now like to briefly discuss Ram’s life and character as it has been traditionally understood and portrayed through the long centuries before late twentieth and early twenty-first century. Ram, as has been seen above, has always been conceived and portrayed as ‘Maryada- purushottam’, that is as some one who is an embodiment of virtue and self-restraint, as also dayalu (kind-hearted). Ramcarit-manas is full of touching scenes where he shows not only restraint or peace-loving nature but, also an exalted version of kindness. Let us remember his taking Jatayu ( the huge bird which was hurt for his sake) in his lap and caressing him, and his tender behaviour with Kevat (the boat-man) , or his lovingly eating the berries prior tasted by Shabri. He can never be provoked to feel or act with anger. When the ocean does not give way for his small army of tribal people (called monkeys by arrogant Aryans) , he at first sits quietly at the side of ocean; but getting no response he declares his intention to dry up the ocean, but does not try to carry out his threat, rather just smiles when the ocean surrenders. 27 We have seen above how he is both respectful and obedient to seniors, and extremely affectionate to his juniors.
Ram, as portrayed in his idols in all the temples across India is always shown as smiling, kindness personified, with his right hand raised –palm outwards, that is abhay mudra (giving all an assurance of protection and blessing). This traditional understanding of Ram has been turned upside down in the present day portrayal of Ram as standing with his bow drawn with a ‘raudra mudra’ ( angry or an aggressive attitude) on his face, ready to destroy (all but his devotees ?). This not only contradicts his image as a kind-hearted Deity; but also goes against all literary descriptions of his character. Again to quote Tulsidas: he describes Ram as telling all that, though his devotees are most dear to him, he is equally kind to all. 28 It is not Tulsidas alone, but from Valmiki’ Adi Ramayana to all well recognized works on the katha of Ram have understood and described Ram as an ideal person, where ideal implies a restrained and kind nature. In no work mentioned above has Ram been portrayed as angry and violent.
Moreover, till this image of Ram with the bow drawn in a ‘raudra mudra’ was popularized by the modern ‘Ram bhaktas’. Ram was traditionally represented along with Sita and Lakshmana, as also Hanuman sitting at their feet. All temples have the idols of these four figures. The entire conceptualization of Ram was inclusive, expressing the values of togetherness and love. It is to be noted here that in Hindu thought a man is never complete without his wife. The three main concepts of the Deity- Shiva, Krishna and Ram have been always conceived and presented in their images as pairs—Shiva-Parvati, Radha- Krishna and Ram –Sita. Interestingly, we have a choice in speaking the name of the female partner first- like Radha-Krishna’ or Siya (Sita)-Ram. But present ‘Ram bhaktas’ have excluded all in order to portray Ram as a warrior, ready to destroy the enemies of his ‘bhaktas’. This image goes against both the traditional conceptualization of Ram, and the ‘bharatiya sanskriti’ in which male and female, husband and wife form one unit. Even in those works who wrongly describe Sita- tyag, the worth of Sita as a wife remains intact. After abandoning Sita, Ram gets a gold idol of Sita placed along with him during the rituals of Ashvamedha yajna.
III, i..(b) Then suddenly ‘the devotees of Ram’, so far worshipping a Ram with a ‘raudra mudra’ started hailing ‘Ram lalla’, Ram as a child! For the time being, Ram’s image as an angry warrior has been pushed back. Those who do not know the historical cause of this transformation would get confused. It was simply the claim of those ‘devotees of Ram’ to a particular spot in Ayodhya where a mosque existed as the birth place of Ram.. The mosque was destroyed with much fanfare. Alright, ‘the devotees’, having all round support, achieved their aim of humiliating the minority. Then a large ‘ bhavya mandir’ was built there, at a mind boggling huge cost. . Significantly, nowhere in India or outside any such grand temple of Ram has been built. Do they mean that now their Deity is ‘Ram lalla’, and not the Ram with ‘raudra mudra’, they so far worshipped?
Moreover, no such conception of Ram as a child being the Deity of one’s choice (ishta devata) is found in the history of Ram Bhakti tradition. In Ramcharit- manas, as also the Valmiki Ramayana, or earlier equally authentic works there is just mention of the birth of these four brothers; and then there are stories of Ram and Lakshmana going to the forest to the ashram of muni Vishvamitra, so that the munis there could perform their yajna (rituals). Then there is description of Sita swayamvar, etc. ( Now, the whole movement for Ram is based on Ram as a child, who was never an object of worship in the original story of Ram, or in the tradition of bhakti or devotion to Ram.)
The long period in which the story of Ram developed, without losing its central theme, suggests that there must have been a historical character of Ram. Heterodox sects, including Jatak kathas and Jain kathas, all refer to the core of Ram’s story. The conception of Ram being the avatar of the Supreme God is later on superimposed on the original character of Ram; gradually leading to the sect of Ram bhakti. The only changes in this story of Ram are found in those works which are either from Jain tradition, or are influenced by some literary tradition of Krishna katha, which is different from the profounder Krishna bhakti tradition.
In some very late works (15th cent. onwards) there is description of Ram’s playful activities as a child. But as we have seen above, these works are not well-recognized, and their description of Ram’s activities as a child are straight borrowed from the conception of Krishna and his activities (lila) in the works on Krishna-bhakti, especially by Surdas. If the conception of Ram as a playful child in these later works is accepted as authentic, then we would have to accept crude descriptions of Ram’s conjugal love with Sita, as well as the suggestion of Ram having a large number of wives! These works are an example of the lack of any restraint in Hinduism which allows any flight of imagination. This is, however, true that there is no idea of ‘Ram Lalla’ like the idea of Gopal Krishna in the tradition of Ram bhakti. Krishna as Gopal (child) is for some reason an even more popular Deity than that of Radha Krishna. Possibly, some ritualistic considerations encouraged the worship of Gopal ji, as his puja did not need ritualistic purity.
III.(ii) Ram Bhakti : Then and Now
III.(ii) (a) We have discussed briefly the poetry of the saints of late middle ages who had practiced Ram’ or Krishna’ bhakti. First, we should remember that the concept and
practice of ‘religion’ are very different from that of ‘bhakti’. Religion is understood in the West as belief in a transcendent and ’wholly other’ God, and some related dogmas and rituals. Bhakti is recognition and experience of God who is both transcendent and yet very near and approachable ; and total submission to Him.
. Medieval Bhkta saints, like Tukaram, Namdev and Kabir emphasized the all round presence of God. Broadly speaking, Bhakti tradition asserted : First, there is only one God (neither the innumerable gods of popular Hinduism, nor the notion of two gods, one each of Hindus and Muslims. Kabir and Nanak asserted this forcefully, though all bhakta saints recognized it. Kabir repeatedly told us:
Brother, where did your two gods come from?
Tell me who made you mad.
Ram, Allah, Keshav, Karim, …
So many names… 28.
Secondly, this one God is not some entity beyond our grasp as Protestants assert, rather He is near us. Kabir’s God tells him why he is searching for God here and there; He is actually within him (Moko kahan dhunde re bande , Main to tere pas main.). Kabir’s God tells his devotees that He is neither in mandirs, nor in masjids, nor is he in remote tirthas; He is approachable by just calling Him with love and faith.’ 29
Thirdly, since He is in one’s heart, it follows that He is present in every heart, making all distinctions between Brahmin or Shudra, Hindus or Muslims useless. 30
Fourthly, since God is within us, all rituals, pilgrimages etc. are equally useless. While the followers of the concept of Nirguna Ishwar fully rejected all rituals; those who conceived God as Saguna, that is, in human form accepted temples and minimum rituals.
And yet, all of them emphasized the presence of God in all beings, and affirmed that not rituals, nor high jnana, only bhakti with a pure heart can lead one to Ishwar.
Fifthly, if so, then we have to be kind, compassionate and friendly to all living beings. Also, since God indwells our hearts, it follows that we should be pure in our hearts, without any ego, or worldly desires, and of course without any ill-will or enmity towards others. And so on
The Bhagvadgita repeatedly tells two things- First, God abides in all beings; and second, the only way to reach one’s spiritual goal is total self surrender to Him. Lord Krishna, here representing the Absolute Divine, describes a true devotee as:
He who has no ill-will to any being, who is friendly and compassionate
Even-minded in pleasure and pain…...
He who behaves alike to friend and foe, or to good and evil, ……31
Krishna’s description of an ideal bhakta tells all:
He, O Arjuna, who sees with equality all living beings as one’s
self, whether in pleasure or in pain, is considered a perfect yogi. 32
Krishna tells further:
Whoever offers to Me (here representing the ‘Divine’) with devotion
a leaf, a flower or a fruit, or water
That offering of love of the pure of heart, is dear to Me. 33
As I understand, the idea and practice of Bhakti stands for a conception of God who is equally present in all hearts, which means there is no basis for distinction between different communities; far more important, it leaves no scope for mutual hatred and violence. Bhakti presupposes the response of the heart and mind to one God, Bhakti means total self-surrender to God that involves giving up one’s ego and all worldly desires. Since God is within us, or very near us, His worship does not require any rituals. As Kabir repeatedly rebuked us how carrying rosary, or putting marks on one’s head (tilak) etc. do not serve any purpose, when one wants to meet God. 34 Similarly, Tulsi das tells us that God resides at every place and time; so He does not need any elaborate rituals, only desire-less love (priti) .35
III. (ii) (b) As to Ram bhakti- I do not find anything in the contemporary society which can be remotely said to be an example of Ram bhakti. Let us take the first tenet of Bhakti Parampara: there is only one God, you may call Him by any name you choose. The followers of the Nirguna (God as both transcendent and immanent), like Kabir and Nanak emphasized that there is no difference between Ram and Allah; these are but names given to the one Absolute by men, and therefore no difference between Hindus and Muslims. Now, the ‘Ram bhaktas’ seem to think and act as if the two are fundamentally different; and therefore, the Muslims who worship Allah are enemies of Hindus who worship Ram! This only proves that they might have made a grand temple of Ram Lalla, they do not have any devotion (bhakti) for Him, as bhakti rejects all distintions. Not only this, their claim as to Ram being the only God / only conception of God for Hindus is equally wrong. The saints of Bhakti tradition repeatedly declared that there is no difference between Ram and Krishna, or any other conception of God, like Shiv and Ram. 36 Ram became a popular name among Hindu masses, especially in the North, for the simple reason that they found it easy to call God Ram. Mostly the name Ram was used for God, not necessarily for the Ram of Ayodhya. Kabir used the name of Ram for his Absolute. Gandhi ji used it consistently, but explained that by the word Ram he does not mean the Ram , king of Ayodhya..37 (Of course our ‘Ram bhaktas’ do not ever refer to the Mahatma.) ‘Ram-Ram’ became a standard way of greeting. Even Muslims are said to use this phrase when meeting their (Hindu) neighbours.
Bhakti was understood unanimously as unconditional devotion to one’s God. Its first condition was selflessness, and transcendence of one’s ego and its petty desires. A real bhakta never asked for any worldly thing, only his God’s kripa (grace). 31 And now, our ‘Ram bhaktas’ worship Ram only as a means of gaining their worldly ambitions (political power). Actually, the attitude of these new ‘Ram bhaktas’ provides the conceivable contradiction of the conception and practice of bhakti in the Middle Ages, or recent saints mentioned earlier.
Significantly, all devotee saints (bhaktas) of medieval India asserted that rituals are useless in approaching God, only thing required is selfless devotion to God. Rejection of rituals was more prominent among the saints of the Nirguna Brahman than among those who worshipped God in human form (Saguna). Importantly, even among the latter, devotees of Ram emphasized moral qualities more in place of rituals. Now, it is the other way round- construction of a grand Ram temple and the elaborate rituals of the temple have been understood as Ram bhakti, not only by those who expect to benefit from the rigmarole, but also by almost the entire Hindu masses, so that real spiritual-moral content of the idea of bhakti is totally lost.
If any one were to honestly observe all round her, she would see that there is no bhakti (sincere devotion) to Ram involved in all the rituals, and photo sessions associated with the declaration of Ram as the only God of ‘Indians’.
Bhakti also meant highest moral integrity, as also compassion and friendliness for all human beings, nay, all living beings. We have seen above how in the Bhagvadgita, bhakti is described as consisting of all positive moral qualities. Similarly, Tulsidas has frequently described saints or true bhaktas in terms of moral qualities. If some one wishes to tell what Bhakti means, she can simply quote Narsi Mehta’s bhajan, so loved by Gandhi : “Vaishnav jan to tene kahiye jo pida parayi jane re”. ‘Real bhakta is one who understands the pain of others’. There follow a list of other moral qualities, as ‘paropakar’(doing good to others), absence of any ego or pride, and so on.
If so, then we should expect greater moral integrity among the bhaktas of Ram. But it does not happen. This is the biggest tragedy of contemporary India. It is not Ram bhaktas alone, but all Indians, to whatsoever community they may belong, have somehow managed to drastically separate out the spheres of religion (mistakenly called dharma) and morality. While they build high and glorious temples at great material cost; go to temples regularly, visit tirthas, celebrate religious festivals with great pomp and show, their sense of moral rectitude is extremely low on every count. Selfishness, greed and excessive consumerism have cut at the very roots of family relations which were the strongest root of Indian culture; as well as loss of self- constraint and avoiding of violence in interpersonal relations in the society. Above all, the feelings of compassion for the downtrodden has evaporated from our hearts. No contradiction is seen between excessive religiosity and extreme corruption, communal hatred and dereliction of duty.
I can only say that if the ideal of Ram bhakti, as expressed in works of Tulsidas and other bhakta saints are understood properly as a guide in our socio-political life, may be, both our religion and social life would become purer and more spiritual.
Notes
1. I am totally indebted in the above discussion to the great research work Ramkatha: Utpatti Aur Vikas by Fr. Kamil Bulke, Prayag: Hindi Parishad, Prayag Vishvavidalaya, 1950, reprint 2004. The work is so comprehensive, covering every language and every version of Ram katha that a few months’ independent effort on my part would not have gathered even a fraction of the rich information contained in it.
2. ibid pp 24 ff., 95 ff.; also see Valmiki Ramayana (tr. by Makhanlal Sen: New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1978). After serious study of Valmik Ramayana, I am of the firm opinion that its Uttarkand, as well as Balkand, are later additions. The story ends with Ram’s return to Ayodhya and his coronation. Uttarkand is not only written in a different style, there is just no continuity in it with the earlier part of the story. Similarly, the mythological and meandering style of Balkand is quite different from the rest of the story. Some passages in the Uttarkand describing gods coming to Ram and praising him as the Godhead are also obviously later additions. See Bulke, op. cit., Ch.s 8 and 14 for a detailed discussion about later additions to the original.
3. Mahabharat, Aranyak Parv, Ch.s 257 to 276. (Hindi tr., chief editor Damodar Satvalekar, Paradi: Svadhyaya Mandal, 1969.)
4. See Bulke, op. cit, pp. 117 ff. While I have read major Puranas and the Yoga Vasishtha, but the detailed information about other religious texts is borrowed from Bulke’s monumental work.
5. See ibid., pp. 137 ff.;. 139 ff.
6. See ibid., pp. 149 ff
7. Of course, I had no knowledge of Ram katha in the South Indian languages; therefore the above account is fully borrowed from Bulke; see ibid., pp. 176 ff. Similarly, the account of Ran katha in Gujarati and Marathi languages is borrowed from Bulke, op. cit., pp 186 ff.
8. Though I had some knowledge of Ram katha in Bengali and Assamese languages, I have preferred to rely on the more authentic account of Kamil Bulke. See ibid., pp. 186 ff. , 204 ff.
9. See Hindi Sahitya ka Brihat Itihas, Vol. V, Bhakt-ikal: Saguna Bhakti, ed. by Dindayal Gupt, et al.: Kashi: Nagri Pracarini Sabha, 1957, pp. 171-173.; Ramchandra Shukl, Surdas , Kashi: Nagari Pracharini Sabha, 1998, pp. 98 ff.
10, See Hindi Sahitya., pp 171 ff.; Bulke, op. cit., 199- 200.
11. Ramcarit-manas (Gita Press, Gorakhpur) Ayodhya-kand 263: 3-4 and following;
12. ibid, Ayodhya kand, 281: 2-4
13. ibid, Ayodhya-kand, 243: 3-4 and ff.
14. Ayodhya kand, 190: 1 ff.
15. For the entire episode, popularly known as Bharat Milap, especially the beautiful dialogue between Ram and Bharat see Ibid., Ayodhya kand . 239:3 ff.; 258:1 ff
16. ibid., Ayodhya kand 192: 3; 194 ff.; Uttar-kand 19: 4-5; 20:1 (Though I have argued that Uttar-kand is not authentic, this refers to Vakmini’s text; Tulsidas does not rely in his narration on Valmiki, and his views are his own.)
17. Ninian Smart, Doctrine and Argument in Indian Philosophy, New York: E.J. Bill, 1992, pp.127 ff.
18. Bhagvadgita IX: 4-7;Bhagvat Purana Book II, Chapter 3; Book IV, Chapter 31
19. R.G. Bhandarkar, Vainavism, Saivaism and Minor Religious Systems, Varanasi:
Ideological Book House, 1965, Chapters 8
20. Ramcharit-manas, Bal kand 120: 4—121
21. ibid., Bal kand 184: 2 ff.
22. ibid., Bal kand 114. 4 ff.
23. ibid., Bal kand 7
24. Vinay Patrika, poem 53; also poems54-- 57. ( ed.,Yogendra Pratap Singh, Allahabad: Lok Bharti)
27. op.cit., Ayodhya kand 127—131.
28, Vinay Patrika, poem 79; also72, 78,101, 103 etc.
27. op. cit., Sundar kand 50.1 ff.
28 Kabir, The Bijak of Kabir, tr., Linda Hess and Sukhdev Singh Delhi:1986, poem 30.
29 , Tagore, Poems of Kabir, Macmillan, poem 1
30 Kabir, The Bijak, op. cit., poem 75. This idea is repeated in all Kabir’s poems
31. The Bhagavadgita , VI. 9, XII. 23- 19., tr., S Radhakrishnan, Backi &Son(India).
32.. ibid., VI. 32; see also VI. 29, 30, 31.
33. ibid., IX..26.
34. "Vinay Patrike , poem 107"
Saral Jhingran did her Ph. D on Advaita Vedanta and Action in 1972. Since then she has published 6 books, which are:
1 Roots of World Religions (Books & Books. 1980)
2. Aspects of Hindu Morality (Motilal Banarsidass, 1989, 1999)
3 Secularism in India: A Reappraisal ( Har-Anand, 1995)
4. Ethical Relativism and Universalism (Motolal Banarsidass, 2001)
5 Madrasa Education in India : A Study ( Manohar. 2010)
6 Why be Moral? A Search for Justification of Morality.(Har Anand, 2017)
More than 45 papers published, several in anthologies, rest in various journals of philosophy (IPQ, JICPR), Philosophy of Religion, Secularism and IPW, as also in the PHISPC vol. on Islam.. ( Several papers are accepted but not yet published.)