American Historical Beginnings

[Vincent]

The Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity
WRITTEN BY
David L. Holmes
Walter G. Mason Professor of Religious Studies, College of William and
Mary. Author of The Faiths of the Founding Fathers and others.
See Article History

For some time the question of the religious faith of the Founding
Fathers has generated a culture war in the United States. Scholars
trained in research universities have generally argued that the majority
of the Founders were religious rationalists or Unitarians. Pastors and
other writers who identify themselves as Evangelicals have claimed not
only that most of the Founders held orthodox beliefs but also that some
were born-again Christians.

Whatever their beliefs, the Founders came from similar religious
backgrounds. Most were Protestants. The largest number were raised in
the three largest Christian traditions of colonial America—Anglicanism
(as in the cases of John Jay, George Washington, and Edward Rutledge),
Presbyterianism (as in the cases of Richard Stockton and the Rev. John
Witherspoon), and Congregationalism (as in the cases of John Adams and
Samuel Adams). Other Protestant groups included the Society of Friends
(Quakers), the Lutherans, and the Dutch Reformed. Three Founders—Charles
Carroll and Daniel Carroll of Maryland and Thomas Fitzsimmons of
Pennsylvania—were of Roman Catholic heritage.

The sweeping disagreement over the religious faiths of the Founders
arises from a question of discrepancy. Did their private beliefs differ
from the orthodox teachings of their churches? On the surface, most
Founders appear to have been orthodox (or “right-believing”) Christians.
Most were baptized, listed on church rolls, married to practicing
Christians, and frequent or at least sporadic attenders of services of
Christian worship. In public statements, most invoked divine assistance.

But the widespread existence in 18th-century America of a school of
religious thought called Deism complicates the actual beliefs of the
Founders. Drawing from the scientific and philosophical work of such
figures as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Isaac Newton, and John Locke, Deists
argued that human experience and rationality—rather than religious dogma
and mystery—determine the validity of human beliefs. In his widely read
The Age of Reason, Thomas Paine, the principal American exponent of
Deism, called Christianity “a fable.” Paine, the protégé of Benjamin
Franklin, denied “that the Almighty ever did communicate anything to
man, by…speech,…language, or…vision.” Postulating a distant deity whom
he called “Nature’s God” (a term also used in the Declaration of
Independence), Paine declared in a “profession of faith”:
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I believe in one God, and no more; and I hope for happiness beyond
this life. I believe in the equality of man; and I believe that
religious duties consist in doing justice, loving mercy, and in
endeavoring to make our fellow-creatures happy.

Thus, Deism inevitably subverted orthodox Christianity. Persons
influenced by the movement had little reason to read the Bible, to pray,
to attend church, or to participate in such rites as baptism, Holy
Communion, and the laying on of hands (confirmation) by bishops. With
the notable exceptions of Abigail Adams and Dolley Madison, Deism seems
to have had little effect on women. For example, Martha Washington, the
daughters of Thomas Jefferson, and Elizabeth Kortright Monroe and her
daughters seem to have held orthodox Christian beliefs.

But Deistic thought was immensely popular in colleges from the middle of
the 18th into the 19th century. Thus, it influenced many educated (as
well as uneducated) males of the Revolutionary generation. Although such
men would generally continue their public affiliation with Christianity
after college, they might inwardly hold unorthodox religious views.
Depending on the extent to which Americans of Christian background were
influenced by Deism, their religious beliefs would fall into three
categories: non-Christian Deism, Christian Deism, and orthodox Christianity.

One can differentiate a Founding Father influenced by Deism from an
orthodox Christian believer by following certain criteria. Anyone
seeking the answer should consider at least the following four points.
First, an inquirer should examine the Founder’s church involvement.
However, because a colonial church served not only religious but also
social and political functions, church attendance or service in a
governing body (such as an Anglican vestry, which was a state office in
colonies such as Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina) fails to
guarantee a Founder’s orthodoxy. But Founders who were believing
Christians would nevertheless be more likely to go to church than those
influenced by Deism.

The second consideration is an evaluation of the participation of a
Founder in the ordinances or sacraments of his church. Most had no
choice about being baptized as children, but as adults they did have a
choice about participating in communion or (if Episcopalian or Roman
Catholic) in confirmation. And few Founders who were Deists would have
participated in either rite. George Washington’s refusal to receive
communion in his adult life indicated Deistic belief to many of his
pastors and peers.

Third, one should note the religious language a Founder used.
Non-Christian Deists such as Paine refused to use Judeo-Christian
terminology and described God with such expressions as “Providence,”
“the Creator,” “the Ruler of Great Events,” and “Nature’s God.” Founders
who fall into the category of Christian Deists used Deistic terms for
God but sometimes added a Christian dimension—such as “Merciful
Providence” or “Divine Goodness.” Yet these Founders did not move
further into orthodoxy and employ the traditional language of Christian
piety. Founders who remained unaffected by Deism or who (like John
Adams) became conservative Unitarians used terms that clearly conveyed
their orthodoxy (“Savior,” “Redeemer,” “Resurrected Christ”).

Finally, one should consider what friends, family, and, above all,
clergy said about a Founder’s religious faith. That Washington’s pastors
in Philadelphia clearly viewed him as significantly influenced by Deism
says more about Washington’s faith than do the opposite views of later
writers or the cloudy memories of a few Revolutionary veterans who
avowed Washington’s orthodoxy decades after his death.

Although no examination of history can capture the inner faith of any
person, these four indicators can help locate the Founders on the
religious spectrum. Ethan Allen, for example, appears clearly to have
been a non-Christian Deist. James Monroe, a close friend of Paine,
remained officially an Episcopalian but may have stood closer to
non-Christian Deism than to Christian Deism. Founders who fall into the
category of Christian Deists include Washington (whose dedication to
Christianity was clear in his own mind), John Adams, and, with some
qualifications, Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was more influenced by the
reason-centred Enlightenment than either Adams or Washington. Orthodox
Christians among the Founders include the staunchly Calvinistic Samuel
Adams. John Jay (who served as president of the American Bible Society),
Elias Boudinot (who wrote a book on the imminent Second Coming of
Jesus), and Patrick Henry (who distributed religious tracts while riding
circuit as a lawyer) clearly believed in Evangelical Christianity.

Although orthodox Christians participated at every stage of the new
republic, Deism influenced a majority of the Founders. The movement
opposed barriers to moral improvement and to social justice. It stood
for rational inquiry, for skepticism about dogma and mystery, and for
religious toleration. Many of its adherents advocated universal
education, freedom of the press, and separation of church and state. If
the nation owes much to the Judeo-Christian tradition, it is also
indebted to Deism, a movement of reason and equality that influenced the
Founding Fathers to embrace liberal political ideals remarkable for
their time.
David L. Holmes