Conservation Biology and Agriculture
Alan McGowen
New and Notable
[I am posting this long announcement because the journal introduces
conservation biology in an important context often ignored by a
disproportionate emphasis on wildlands and parks design and management.
The special issues also covers many of the dominant themes of conservation
biology, and the abstracts will serve as a good introduction for readers who
may want to know more about the approaches of the field - Preston]
Special Issue of Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, Volume 42 (1-2)
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INTEGRATING CONSERVATION BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
Gall, G.A.E. and Staton, M. (eds.)(1992). Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Gall, G.A.E. and Orians, G.H. - Agriculture and biological conservation. pp.
1-8.
Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616,
United States and Department of Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle,
WA 98195, United States.
Since its beginnings about ten thousand years ago, agriculture has spread
steadily around the world to become a dominant form of land management
on all continents. Agricultural practices have affected the welfare of many
organisms other than the primary targets of its manipulations. Prior to the
1960's, with the slow rate at which new land was brought under cultivation,
there was little concern about the relation between agriculture and
conservation. Low intensity agricultural management systems allowed
survival of nontarget economic species which also gave relatively higher
value to their indirect benefits (recreational, aesthetic, economic). But the
dramatic increase in the intensity of management and capital investment in
agriculture after World War II heralded in a new era in which the multiple
use of the land declined as the intensity of management, and, hence, the
value of the market crop, increased. Little attention has been paid to the
ways changes in agricultural practices might have beneficial consequences
for conservation. Agricultural practices can be used as key experimental
variables and as laboratories to provide conservation biology with systems
to investigate many ecological processes.
The goal of the discussion is to provide an overview of conservation
biology and agriculture and the relationships that could help determine how
agricultural objectives and practices could be modified to enhance the
conservation of biological resources for the long-term viability of agriculture.
Traditional and modern technological practices both can contribute to the
development of new systems. A provisional classification of organisms is
offered to assist in the analysis of the interactions between agricultural
practices and the organisms. Agricultural systems are classified into
monoculture, mixed farming, pastures and rangelands, forestry, intensive
animal production systems, and integrated systems. An identification of key
techniques and practices within each type of agriculture, the spatial scale of
agriculture, lead to a clarification of how agricultural operations could be
changed and how such changes would affect non-target species, management
options, and research opportunities.
Rice, Kevin - Theory and conceptual issues. pp. 9-26. Department of Animal
Agronomy and Range Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616,
United States.
The application of hierarchical theory and techniques to conservation
biology and agriculture will greatly facilitate the development of more
meaningful dialogue between the two fields. This paper examines the
parallel organization of biological diversity in both agricultural and natural
systems across spatial and temporal scales and shows that there are many
theoretical concepts of common concern to both as well as real differences
between the two disciplines. For both fields of study, diversity can
hierarchically divided into species variability within local habitats (alpha
diversity), variation among habitats (beta diversity), and variation over a
broad landscape (gamma diversity). The two disciplines describe the
structure and dynamics of ecosystems. Agriculture is concerned with the
economics of production of particular commodities and uses a process
functional approach (energy flow). Conservation biology utilizes the
population community approach. The variables used to assess biological
diversity at a particular spatial and temporal scale can differ significantly
between agricultural and natural systems, e.g. cultivar as opposed to species
diversity. Evolution of populations is affected by both agricultural practices
and conservation management programs. One force of evolution which may
be highly significant to both agriculture and conservation biology is gene
flow between populations. The structure of population genetic diversity has
implications for efforts in both conservation biology and agriculture in
reference to the conservation of species-wide levels of genetic diversity.
Gilpin, M., Gall. G.A.E. and Woodruff, D.S. - Ecological dynamics and
agricultural landscapes. pp. 27-52. Department of Biology, University of
California, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States; Department of Animal Science,
University of California, Davis, CA 95616; and Department of Biology,
University of California, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States.
The planet Earth is having difficulty under the stress imposed by the
diverse demands of an ever increasing human population. The problem
appears to stem not only from population pressures but also from an
imbalance between the needs and desires of society. Agriculture, broadly
defined to include farming, fishing, forestry and grazing systems, plays a
significant role in the management of land, water, and biological resources.
This paper provides an analysis of opportunities for interaction between
ecological science and agriculture. The long-term stability of agriculture is
dependent on natural sources of genetic material. Many parts of society see a
conflict between conservation of biological resources and their exploitation
by agriculture. Agricultural production is essential to society and also can
provide stewardship of biological resources beyond the limits of those
directly associated with production of a commodity. However,
interdisciplinary effort is needed in the development of strategies, and
societal support of agriculture must take a form that rewards agriculture for
this stewardship.
Woodruff, D.S. and Gall, G.A.E. - Genetics and Conservation. pp. 53-73.
Department of Biology, University of California, La Jolla, CA 92093, United
States and Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis
95616, United States.
The basic sciences of genetics and ecology have long played a vital role in
agriculture. New technologies spawning a gene revolution promise to
revolutionize agricultural genetics. The opportunities to utilize these new
techniques, along with standard methods of animal and plant breeding, are
great for agriculture, conservation biology, and their synergism. Biological
diversity is inextricably linked to human welfare. Genetic engineering is
viewed as having both promise and risk to agricultural and natural biological
systems, suggesting that its application must be evaluated on a case-by-case
basis. In order to adequately manage genetic resources, patterns of genetic
variation must be documented and their relationship to the life-histories of
species and the functioning of ecosystems understood. To achieve this goal,
species to receive attention must be prioritized, possibly based on their
usefulness as indicator species in defining genetic management strategies for
biological groups of species. Particular attention should be given to invasive
species, to the phenotypic plasticity of species, and the organizational
complexity of populations, communities, and ecosystems. A return to greater
scientific emphasis at the organismal and ecosystem level obviously is
essential.
Plucknett, D.L. and Horne, M.E. - Conservation and genetic resources. pp. 75-
92. The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, United States.
An overview of current conservation systems is presented along with a
general framework of principles and concepts that govern resource
conservation work. The article surveys national and international genetic
resource conservation programs, outlines the current state of conservation
systems for plants, animals, and microorganisms, and calls for a global plan
for conservation of biological diversity. Programs for plant germplasm are
more organized and developed than those for animals. In situ conservation,
the maintenance of a population within a community of which it forms a
part, is examined, including maintenance of species of economic interest
within natural ecosystems. This approach has numerous advantages and
tends to conserve more than the target species. A contrasting view is given
of conservation biology and agriculture conservation as to the value of
genetic conservation of wilderness areas as reservoirs of genetic variability.
Ex situ conservation, the conservation of organisms outside of natural
habitats, is considered especially for seeds of major crop plants. Germplasm
banks fulfill an important long-term need and their functionality is
dependent on the collection, characterization, preservation, and distribution
of genetic resources.
Gall, G.A.E., Kreith, M. and Staton, M. - Global climate change. pp. 93-100.
Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616,
United States and Public Service Research and Dissemination Program,
University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
A succession of environmental events over the last few years has led to a
dramatically increased awareness of the issue of global climate change and
to the conviction that global climate change is occurring. The anticipated
global climatic changes are new and unique in that they will have been
generated by human activity and could result in large-scale disruptions in
ecosystems altering the suitability for organisms currently occupying them.
The goals of both conservation biology and agriculture of feeding an
increasing world population and preserving species diversity may be
seriously challenged when linked to climate change. Anticipated atmospheric
changes in precipitation patterns, temperature, and greenhouse gases could
have extreme effects on species and ecosystems. Human systems could also
be affected, especially those based on coastal wetlands or shared river
basins. Agriculture will be profoundly affected, with local, regional, and
global changes occurring. Species distribution is likely to be drastically
altered as a consequence of global warming.
Orians, G.H. and Lack, P. - Arable lands. pp. 101-124. Department of Zoology,
University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States and British Trust
for Ornithology, The Nunnery, Thetford, Norfolk 1P24 2PU, United Kingdom.
This paper considers the major types of intensive farming that dominates
most of agriculture and examines the effects on biodiversity of certain
farming operations. Problems and opportunities for integration of
agricultural practices and conservation are approached through a description
of different spatial scales. A micro-spatial level examination focuses on field
and farm levels. At the field level, farming operations, options available to
farmers, and the effects of agricultural options to biological conservation are
examined through reference to field preparations, tillage methods, water
availability, fertilizers, and harvest methods. At the farm level, field
boundaries and size of fields have numerous implications for conservation
biology as well as for agriculture, particularly edge effects, buffer zones, and
local natural vegetation mosaics. At the regional level, effective management
for conservation biology and agriculture needs to consider efforts to increase
habitat diversity and patchiness, the interest of urban peoples in recreation
in natural areas, and the nature of pest control and management. On the
global level, agriculture affects habitats and species survival, contributes to
global climate change, ecological and human health, available land for other
uses, and composition of plant communities.
Orians, G.H. and Millar, C.I. - Forest lands. pp. 125-140. Department of
Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States and
Instutute of Forest Genetics, U.S. Forest Service, P.O. Box 245, Berkeley, CA
94701, United States.
Crucial forest management decisions are whether to harvest an existing
native forest and, if so, under what silvicultural system. Key questions about
biological diversity in forest systems are best approached through different
spatial scales. At the local level, the major question is how does management
influence the capability of the stand or plot to support a variety of plant and
animal species, the alpha component of biological diversity. At the regional
level, questions of beta diversity arise. Gamma diversity and geographic-
level genetic diversity are favored by a broad heterogeneous landscape.
Management decisions that affect the size, shape, relative proportions, and
spatial distributions of forest stands modify the capacity of a region to
support a diverse mix of species in complex ways. A concluding section on
tropical forestry and traditional agroforestry systems focuses upon issues
and opportunities in creative management with special attention to the
forestry practices of the indigenous Maya-Lacondon peoples of Central
America as a model for humid tropic integrative agroforestry management.
Menke, J. and Bradford, G.E. - Rangelands. pp. 141-163. Department of
Agronomy and Range Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616,
United States and Department of Animal Science, University of California,
Davis, CA 95616, United States.
Effective integration of the three main goals of rangeland management -
economic gain through livestock production, management of game animals
for recreational use, and conservation of biological diversity - is essential
and will form a cornerstone of conservation of biological diversity for future
generations. Rangelands encompass nearly 50% of the earth's land area and
is defined as land where people have intervened to manage the vegetation
with livestock for economic gain. The introduction of domestic animals to a
natural plant community has profound effects on the composition of the
vegetation, soil erosion by wind and water, and on the population density
and species composition of native organisms. Rangelands vary in their
biological and economic productivity throughout the world and the greatest
impacts on biodiversity usually occur on sites with the highest productivity.
Worldwide overgrazing is the primary issue in range management. The basic
tenet of range science is that the reduction of number of livestock animals
will lead to greater productivity per unit area. Other factors affecting
rangelands are discussed including perturbations by traditional grazing
practices, management of western rangelands, problems with animal
management, introduced domestic animals, and management of native
animals for meat production. A classification of rangelands into four
categories is presented with opportunities for proper management to
enhance biological diversity and range productivity for each type. Ways to
manage rangelands for biodiversity include fire and utilization of restoration
techniques.
Mathias, M.E. and Moyle, P. - Wetland and aquatic habitats. pp. 165-176.
Department of Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90024,
United States and Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Biology, University of
California, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
Riparian wetland areas often represent critical corridors for animal and
plant dispersion in wildland watersheds and downstream river systems. It is
essential that integrated management of riparian wetland areas be
developed to reverse the loss of biological diversity. Agricultural and urban
uses, and related water developments, have led to a marked decline of
stream-side wetland habitats. Six major ways are discussed in which
conventional agriculture alters wetlands and aquatic habitats: wetland
drainage, water diversions, stream channelization, bank stabilization, grazing,
and the release of agricultural pollutants. This article discusses these
practices and suggests ways biological diversity can be protected, or even
enhanced. In addition, aquaculture is discussed as a new force which affects
the diversity of aquatic organisms. Aquaculture methods range in intensity
of management from low to high. The higher the intensity the potentially
more disruptive practices can be to surrounding aquatic ecosystems.
Management for biological diversity as well as for food production should be
encouraged.
Dahlberg, K.A. - The conservation of biological diversity and U.S. agriculture:
Goals, institutions, and policies. pp. 177-193. Department of Political Science,
Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008, United States.
This article attempts to provide a preliminary assessment of how
agricultural and related policy research has generally neglected biological
conservation, the significance of the policy changes now underway, and the
need for further policy changes. Policy changes are identified which could
promote increased cooperation between agricultural and conservation
biology researchers and practitioners. The policy and policy research
implications of seriously pursuing a new and challenging goal for agriculture
are explored. A review and examination of past U.S. agricultural goals,
institutions and policies suggests that the legacy of agriculture's gradual
transformation over the past two centuries, and particularly the past several
decades, has led to increasing genetic impoverishment of farm habitats and
rural landscapes. New national goals concerning genetic diversity of farm
habitats and rural landscapes are defined as ecological goals and point to
developing an adaptive and resilient food and agricultural system as part of
the larger need to develop a more adaptive and resilient society. Agricultural
goals, and the institutionalization that has led to the the attainment of goals
for great crop productivity and high labor efficiency of industrial agriculture,
have been achieved through very high energy inputs. Such agriculture is
based on the availability of fossil fuel and is vulnerable to climate changes.
Examples of ways to modify policy to enhance diversity include making
changes in current set-aside policies, credit programs, and rangeland
management. In developing policies, current paradigms should be
reexamined and issues of water and energy should receive highest priority.
The aesthetic value and diversity of rural landscapes should also be
considered. Strategies need to be developed for setting changes in
agricultural policies that will lead to more diversified, lower input
agricultural systems.
McNeely, J.A. and Norgaard, R.B. - Developed country policies and biological
diversity in developing countries. pp. 194-204. World Conservation Union
(IUCN), 1196 Gland, Switzerland and Energy and Resources Group, University
of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States.
A vigorous effort will be required to negotiate and implement
international commodity agreements which would stabilize and maximize
the earnings of developing countries from the export of primary products.
Success will enable them to evolve and develop from a more balanced base
and to manage their natural resources in a sustainable manner. This article
examines ways developing countries are interlocked with wealthy nations in
terms of agriculture practices, how that affects biodiversity and habitat
conditions in developing countries, and how developing countries could
develop agricultural policies and strategies that would address and correct
the loss of biological diversity. Agricultural trade policies, agricultural
assistance policies, and potentials within these for changes are examined in
terms of achieving sustainable approaches to agriculture. Some general
priinciples are apparent, and the combined effects from certain policies are
clear. Protectionism depletes the resources of the developing world; it
accelerates the loss of of biological diversity and reduces the the ability of
poorer nations to create a context in which future development could occur.
Developing countries become forced to respond to foreign rather than local
conditions. The success of agricultural development will depend on linkages
with natural areas important for biological diversity. Therefore, agricultural
development projects supported by agencies of developed nations must
consider the larger ecosystem, the parts in context with the whole. Since
current models of economic and ecological systems are disconnected, a
monitoring and research program should be established to determine the
effectiveness of alternative policies and organizational structures.
Nonetheless, economic restructuring offers opportunities to direct efforts
towards conservation of biological resources, sustainable agriculture, and
training in principles of conservation. Opportunities for innovative initiatives
exist through debt reduction or exchanging biological debt for biological
conservation. This could lead to sound agricultural systems, reduce
government deficits, and protect biological diversity. The global climate debt,
incurred by wealthy nations, could be managed to the benfit of developing
countries. It is suggested that nations develop a "Foreign Policy Act on
Agriculture and the Environment" stating national objectives in both trade
and aid in relation to agriculture.
Norgaard, R.B. - Coordinating disciplinary and organizational ways of
knowing. pp. 205-216. Energy and Resources Group, University of California,
Berkeley, CA 94720, United States.
This article examines how the difficulties in finding sustainable
environmental interactions may be rooted in the institutionalized thinking
and organizaing from which these attempts emerge. A major question
addressed is why do agencies and organizations support special interests
better than collective ones. There is a long-standin set of political/economic
explanations that attribute the structure of agriculture to the political power
of established political interests. The diverse explanations share one
conclusion in common: agricultural policy and the structure of agriculture
itself in the United States favors the production of commercial outputs
through the use of commercially available inputs instead of promoting the
maintenance and enhancement of viable biological, community and food
systems. The emphasis on commercial inputs and outputs is compatible with
decision-making by individual farmers. Epistemological explanations for why
the United States agriculture has developed along a path based on individual
and commercial inputs and outputs rather than biological and community
systems are complimentary with political/economic explanations. Current
agricultural models and policies are limited in that they are based on
mechanical Newtonian assumptions. Discipline boundaries have impeded
true implementation of interdisciplinary methodologies and the development
of generalized models because the assumptions, cultures, and paradigms
within the disciplines have not been overcome. In addition, different
organizations have not overcome the the differences in the way they
transform data into information. This is true of agencies, organizations, and
academic disciplines. Can large organizations or agencies handle diversity,
given such barriers? For agriculture to play a role in protecting biodiversity,
the heterogeneity of agroecosystems will have to increase. Recommendations
on the structure of organizations to maintain biological diversity in
agricultural systems point to resiliency, checks and balances, redundancy,
and a substantial research and extension effort to overcome barriers to
effectiveness.
Gall, G.A.E. and Staton, M. - Conclusions. pp. 217-230. Department of Animal
Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States and Public
Service Research and Dissemination Service, University of California, Davis,
CA 95616, United States.
Cooperation between agricultural and conservation biologists is
imperative to ensure continued production of high quality food and fiber for
all the earth's peoples, and to protect biological diversity. This article
outlines ideas and needs expressed by participants in the workshops on
conservation biology and agriculture. In the areas of general biology, there is
an enormous need for research in basic and applied genetics and related
technologies. In the area of exploited lands, research is needed on a wide
variety of topics related to biodiversity and the management for bioligical
diversity on range lands, forested lands, and wetlands. Habitat requirements
of native species need to be better understood as do the interrelationships of
native communities and species with adjacent agricultural activities or urban
centers. A series of questions on park design and management need to be
researched and modeled. Research is needed on the effects of grazing
systems on natural plant and animal diversity and changes in grazing
practices as well as on natural grazing patterns by indigenous fauna and
livestock grazing patterns in relation to biodiversity. Other areas where
research is needed include restoration techniques and their effectiveness,
the role of climate change in plant/animal interactions and its relationship to
agriculture, design of forest management systems, harvesting techniques,
and mixed agroforestry systems. In the area of wetland biology and
management, research is needed on the improvement of degraded wetlands
and on longterm monitoring of regenerated wetlands.
Government policies need to be examined with respect to biological,
environmental and economic impacts. Traditional agricultural systems and
the importance of traditional knowledge systems needs to be linked to
agricultural development programs. Research is needed in the design,
implementation, monitoring, and effects of agricultural policies. Research
priorities and longterm goals for sustainability need to be determined. Policy
research is needed on how principles of conservation biology can contribute
to sustainable agriculture.
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Preston Hardison p...@u.washington.edu