No Fear Shakespeare All The World 39;s A Stage

[Lottie Dedinas]

DuringShakespeare's time, people's lives were often short. Asmany as one-half of the children born never lived beyond fifteenyears and, thus, never reached adulthood. Also, the average lifespanof an adult was only thirty years. These short lifespans were due tothe limited medical knowledge. In a time when antiseptics andantibiotics weren't known, doctors used somewhat primitive forms ofmedication. One thing that really tested the medical knowledge wasthe bubonic plague. The disease that often plagued England alwaysappeared suddenly and spread quickly. Ignorant of the disease,doctors typically prescribed anything from amulets to sweet-smellingthings. In an attempt to slow the disease's spread, regulations werepassed. One was to temporarily close all London theaters when thedeath rate was high. People believed this would help to prevent humancontact. Another policy was to kill cats and dogs. Since there werefew cats around to hunt rats, which carried the fleas that carriedthe plague, the bubonic plague was not hindered. At this time,England's food supply was uncertain, even when the plague wasdormant. The poor could've easily starved if there was a series ofbad harvests. Plus, their and the aristocrats' diets weren't verynutritious. This caused the whole population to acquire illnessescaused by vitamin deficiencies.

Despite diseases that plagued England during the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries, populations still increased. Every yearapproximately 10,000 citizens migrated to London mainly because wageswere about 50 percent higher than in other parts of the country.

During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries Englandwas at peace. This brought enterprise and prosperity. Landownersbuilt homes and planted orchards. Even lower class laborers andyeomen worked hard and were able to accumulate wealth. Much of thiswealth was spent on leisure activities: one theater historiancalculated that London playhouses saw close to 50 million visitors.

The main source of the country's income was wool, which made upthree-fourths of England's exports. As wool continued to grow indemand, sheep took priority over people. Farms that produced food forthe country's citizens soon turned into grazing land for sheep. Inreference to the problematic land "trade-offs," a character in ThomasMore's Utopia complained, "the sheep are eating the people."

London became a booming trade station handling 85 percent of allexports. Wool textiles gained popularity as their quality andcraftsmanship became known. Many people realized this, and as aresult ranchers, laborers, merchants, and clerks throughout Englandprofited, receiving healthy wages and incomes.

"London was a violent place in the first half of Shakespeare'scareer" (7). The urban rioters were mostly poor apprentices whopicked on "foreigners, prostitutes, and gentlemen's servingmen" (8).City authorities didn't let disturbances get out of control, but alsodid not take them too seriously. The more serious rioting occurred inrural areas against enclosure of property by landlords and the crown.Lands included commons, waste lands, and forests. This type ofprotest was very popular during Shakespeare's career, especially from1590-1610. Anti-enclosure riots were usually directed at propertyrather than individuals. Riots often had a carnival atmosphere,including drinking and song. Women and children participated indestruction of enclosures as well, which generally consisted oftearing up hedges and filling in ditches. Smaller riots occurredfrequently because small village riots were considered a misdemeanor,whereas larger riots were considered treason. Large riots did occurthough. The largest, known as Kett's Rebellion after its organizer,had 16,000 participants. Rioters were often jailed. Heads ofuprisings, like Kett who died in jail, were tortured and sometimesexecuted.

During the time of William Shakespeare, the majority of women hadvery limited rights in England. Despite the fact that England wasruled by a female monarch for over four decades, most women hadlittle power over the direction of their lives. Most writings aboutthe life of the family during this time in history centered aroundthe traditional partriarchal paradigm--that of "domination andsubmission." Just as the kingdom was ruled by a monarch, the fatherand head of the household ruled over his wife and children. Womenwere denied formal educations, the opportunity to hold office, andalso guarded against speaking out too freely in fear of being labeledas a "scold." Such women were considered a threat to the public, andwere corrected with such punishments as public humiliation andabuse.

Although women did endure such limits on their political andsocial rights, they did have extended to them greater econimicfreedom. Single women were able to "inherit land, make a will, sign acontract, possess property . . . without a male guardian . . ."(10).Unfortuantely, such rights dissolved with marriage. History shows aswell that many daughters were heirs to a father's property, if therewere no male heir, despite the tradition of promigeniture. Wives aswell could find themselves in charge of a large estate after thedeath of a husband, until an eldest son was old enough to do so.

Although literacy rates soared much earlier in the male populationwith the invention of the printing press, literacy among women didnot begin to spread until the late sixteenth century, primarily inresponse to the Protestant push for the direct experience of thescriptures. Greenblatt notes that, "It is striking how many ofShakespeare's women are shown reading" (11). The appearance of thisnew audience spawned a rash of devotional and instructional works oneverything from needlework to midwifery. Fiction for female audiencesappeared later, around 1570. Despite the increase in literacy amongwomen and in works created with them in mind, the overwhelmingmajority of these works-for-women were written by men. The centralcontention in these works was not what women should be, "chastedutiful, shamefast and silent" (11), but rather, whether or not theysucceeded in fulfilling this requirement. Joseph Swetnam's"Arraignment of Lewd, Idle, Forward, and Unconstant Women" waspublished in 1615 and inspired a handful of responses attributed towomen including an anonymous play "Swetnam the Woman-hater Arraignedby Women" (1618). The majority of women who did write were thesisters, wives, or daughters of men who wrote and limited themselvesprimarily to devotional texts and translation. However, there were afew exceptions including Jane Anger's "Jane Anger Her Protection forWomen" (1589) and Elizabeth Cary's play "Tragedy of Miriam, the FairyQueen of Jewry" (1613).

Due to the stir caused by the Reformation in Europe, QueenElizabeth of England sought to stabilize her country by compromisingbetween the Protestants and Catholics. Tensions continued to mountand massacres were occurring on both sides. In 1572, on St.Bartholomew's Day, Catholics massacred French Calvinists (Huguenots).This was soon after some other Protestant purging and theassassination of the Protestant leader, William of Orange. In 1580,the pope stated that it would not be a mortal sin to assassinate theQueen of England. Hereafter, all Catholics, loyal or not, were undersuspicion. Soon, it was discovered that Queen Mary was involved in anassassination plot and "Elizabeth signed the death warrant inFebruary 1587, and her cousin was beheaded."

Soon, it became known that Catholic Spain, under direction ofPhilip II, was going to invade England. However, the Spanish fleetwas routed by the English, then destroyed by storms at sea. In a"victory" speech the Queen stated, "We Princes [England] are set onstages in the sight and view of all the world."

James I took the throne in 1603. His reign was lavish andextravagant. He hoped to unite Scotland and England under one title.James I longed to be crowned "King of Great Britain." His ultimateaim was to preserve peace. During James I's early years, his courtwas known for its "diplomacy, amibition, intrigue, and an intensejockeying for social position." The most highly regarded offices inthe Jacobean Court were those serving the king during moments ofvulnerability. The courtier's lifestyle was refined into an art form.

The Jacobean Court was ideal because the king was generous withmoney and affection. He had favorite courtiers who received exquisitegifts. King James' romantic attachments to his male courtiers spawned"rumors of widespread homosexual activities at court." James I mighthave been merely expressing affection for them based upon moreclassical models. James I and his courtiers were more likelyexpressing "passionate physical and spritual love." What is certainunder James I's reign, male friendships and bonding played animportant role in court and literature.

James I hosted celebrations, and masques were performed for courtnobility. The lifestyle witnessed during the masques led to finanicalstrife for James I. James I's debts rose drastically. Unpopularduties were placed upon the king's subjects. Parliamentary disputesover the king's debts dampened King James I's court life.

James's religious policy began quite radically, yet when headvanced to the throne in England in 1603 he became decidedly moreconservative. While he ruled in Scotland in the 1500's he saw himselfas sacred and felt he had insight into the agents of Satan. In 1597he published his Demonology, a testament of the evil that threatenedhis divine rule. In the 1590's, in Scotland, thousands of women andsome men were tortured and killed for alleged witchcraft. Yet, whenhe claimed the throne in England, he adopted the current laws.Although England had laws against witchcraft, they were far more justand objective than the Scottish laws at that time. James alsomoderated other religious views.

In 1599 James wrote Basilikon Doron which undeniably was againstPuritan reform. However, when presented with a petition signed by athousand ministers, he called a conference to deal with theceremonies of the Church of England; this led to the publication ofthe King James Bible. In addition, the results persuaded James topublish the 1604 Canons, which required ministers to adhere toprinciples that eventually led to religious divisions and ultimatelythe murder of James's son Charles.

3a8082e126