Management Theory Model

[Cora Devries]

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Taylorism involved breaking down the components of manual tasks in manufacturing environments, timing each movement ('time and motion' studies) so that there could be a proven best way to perform each task. Thus employees could be trained to be 'first class' within their job.

This was a scientific system where every task became discrete and specialised. Specialised services are provided in the NHS, and these management techniques could prove useful in these areas, to review productivity.

Authority is distinguished from power by Weber. Power is a unilateral thing - it enables a person to force another to behave in a certain way, whether by means of strength or by rewards. Authority, on the other hand, implies acceptance of the rules by those over whom it is to be exercised within limits agreeable to the subordinates that Weber refers to in discussing legitimate authority.

Traditional authority: where acceptance of those in authority arose from tradition and custom.

Charismatic authority: where acceptance arises from loyalty to, and confidence in, the personal qualities of the ruler.

Rational-legal authority: where acceptance arises out of the office, or position, of the person in authority as bounded by the rules and procedures of the organisation.

It is no coincidence that Weber's writings were at a time of the major industrial revolutions and the growth of large complex organisations out of the cottage industries and/or entrepreneurial businesses.

The efficiency of this rational and logistical organisation shares a considerable amount of common ground with the thinking of Fayol. In particular, features such as scalar chain, specialisation, authority and the definition of jobs which were so essential to successful management as described by Fayol, are typical of bureaucracy. There is also little doubt that Weber's ideas concerning specific spheres of competence and employment based on technical competence would have considerable appeal for Taylor's scientific managers.

Hypothesis was now that it was the attitudes of subjects at work and not the physical conditions. This gave rise to the 'Hawthorne Effect' - employees were responding not so much to changes in the environment as to the fact they were the centre of attention - a special group.

Maslow is often-quoted still today, having developed a seminal theory of the needs of human beings. Herzberg's and McGregor's neo-human relations theories both focus on motivation and leadership, but their theories are very different.

200 engineers and accountants were asked to recall the times/occasions when they experienced satisfactory and unsatisfactory feeling about their jobs. Later this also involved manual and clerical staff similar results were found. Herzberg showed two categories of findings:

1. Exploitative - authoritative where power and direction come from the top down', where threats and punishment are employed, where communication is poor and teamwork is minimal. Productivity is typically mediocre.

2. Benevolent - authoritative is similar to the above but allows some upward opportunities for consultation and some delegation. Rewards may be available as well as threats. Productivity is typically fair to good but at cost of considerable absenteeism and staff turnover.

3. Consultative - where goals are set or orders issued after discussion with subordinates, where communication is upwards and downwards and where teamwork is encouraged, at least partially. Some involvement of employees as a motivator.

4. Participative - this is reckoned by many to be the ideal system. Under this system, the keynote is participation, leading to commitment to the organisation's goals in a fully co-operative way. Communication is both upwards, downwards and lateral. Motivation is obtained by a variety of means. Productivity is excellent and absenteeism and turnover are low.

Studied the needs of people and the needs of organisation. He felt that classical models of organisation promoted 'immaturity' (see below). He felt that it was important to understand the needs of people and integrate them with needs of organisation. Only in this way, he said, can employees become co-operative rather than defensive or aggressive

Attention began to focus on organisations as 'systems' with a number of inter-related sub-systems. The 'systems approach' attempted to synthesise the classical approaches ( organisations without people') with the later human relations approaches that focused on the psychological and social aspects, emphasised human needs - almost 'people without organisations'.

Part of systems theory, system dynamics is a method for understanding the dynamic behaviour of complex systems. The basis of the method is the recognition that the structure of any system -- the many circular, interlocking, sometimes time-delayed relationships among its components -- is often just as important in determining its behaviour as the individual components themselves.

Systems theories took much more of an holistic view of organisations, focusing on the total work organisation and the inter-relationships between structures and human behaviours producing a wide range of variables within organisations. They help us understand the interactions between individuals, groups, organisations, communities, larger social systems, and their environments and help us enhance our understanding of how human behaviour operates in a context.

An example of this in the Modern NHS is care pathways for patients which will often require a range of health disciplines to work together and will often also include professionals from the local authority.

Open system - Relatively open systems have a freer exchange of information and resources within the system and also allow relatively free passage of energy from and to the outside of the system.

The business organisation is an Open System: there is continual interaction with the broader external environment of which it forms a part. The systems approach considers the organisation within its total environment and emphasises the importance of 'multiple channels of interaction'. Thus the systems approach views organisations as a whole and involves the study of the organisation in terms of the relationship between technical and social variables with the systems. Thus changes in one part, technical or social, will affect other parts and therefore the whole system.

It was Trist (1963) and others at the Tavistock Institute of Human relations who focused in on socio-technical systems arising from their study of the effects of changing technology in the coal-mining industries in the 1940s.

From the late 1950s, a new approach to organisation theory was developed which became known as contingency theory. This theory argues that there is no 'one best way' to structure an organisation. An organisation will face a range of choices when determining how it should be structured, how it should be organised, how it should be managed. Successful organisations adopt structures that are an appropriate response to a number of variables, or contingencies, which influence both the needs of the organisation and how it works.

Lewin suggests that it is crucial to balance these forces through effective change communication and employee involvement by providing training to bridge the skill gap. Change agents must implement stress management techniques, ensure compliance is met, and use convincing change reasoning.

Once the status quo is disrupted, this stage deals with the implementation of change. In this stage, you must consider an agile and iterative approach that incorporates employee feedback to smoothen the transition.

More often than not, every change initiative requires behavior modification and continuous upskilling of employees. Building on an existing skillset allows employees to take over more responsibilities. Therefore, offering ongoing employee training is crucial until the change is second nature.

McKinsey suggests that companies with a strong culture achieve up to three times shareholder returns. To reap the long-term benefits of any change initiative, you must anchor the changes in org culture.

For example, Hubspot values culture and product equally. It has an extensive 128-page culture code check to ensure that its culture stays strong as ever. Additionally, Hubspot takes an employee-first approach and invests heavily in employee development and upskilling.

To ensure the successful adoption of new technology, organizations should create a sense of urgency, evaluate their current technology, prepare for the change, implement the new technology, and establish its long-term viability.

People are often hesitant to change their habits, routines, and ways of working, which can create resistance and pushback against the change initiative. This resistance can come in different forms like skepticism, fear, anxiety, or outright opposition.

To prevent this, leaders must communicate the vision, provide guidance and resources, and involve employees in the change process. By demonstrating their support for the change initiative, leaders can build momentum, create buy-in, and increase the likelihood of successful implementation.

To make change initiatives successful, organizations need to allocate sufficient time, money, and other resources. When resources are lacking, implementation can be compromised and quality can suffer. Employees may also resist changes if they feel unsupported or overworked, making it difficult to maintain momentum.

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