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Clinio Ruel
Philology, with its focus on historical development (diachronic analysis), is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis. While the contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and the emphasis of Noam Chomsky on syntax, research in historical linguistics often relies on philological materials and findings.
Grammatical gender in modern Germanic languages displays strong variation. Some languages retain three adnominal genders (e.g., German, Icelandic), others reduced the system to two genders, usually by a merger of masculine and feminine gender (e.g., Dutch, Swedish). In English and Afrikaans, adnominal gender is completely lost. Pronominal gender, on the other hand, does not always reflect adnominal gender, and is retained in at least three genders in all Germanic languages. The chapter starts from the presentation of lexical gender systems in Germanic languages and dialects, reflecting the relevant assignment criteria. It then turns to pronominal gender systems, showing that mismatches, specifically between adnominal and pronominal genders, can result in a re-organization of gender systems. Since many Germanic languages retain a second class of nouns next to gender, namely declension classes, the interrelation between gender and inflection classes is subject of a final section before conclusions are drawn.
This article examines regional and stylistic variation in the merger of front vowels /eː/ and /ɛː/ in Finland-Swedish. The study investigates the merger by comparing formant data from 141 speakers from four Swedish-speaking regions in Finland. Additionally, intraspeaker variation is explored by incorporating samples from three contextual styles. The results indicate cross-regional differences between Finland-Swedish dialects, with a more distinct variant of /ɛː/ being used on the monolingually Swedish-speaking Åland Islands, compared to other regions. However, the findings show that speakers from mainland Finland also demonstrate significantly different formant values for the vowels, particularly in formal speech styles. These results challenge the assumption of a complete /eː-ɛː/ merger in Finland-Swedish, instead pointing to a near-merger, whereby two sounds sound the same to speakers, despite them being differentiated in production. The findings also shed new light on stylistic variation in the variety.
* y and ý merge with i and í (with the sound of i and í) but they are kept separate in writing (although many manuscripts from before the official standard for written Icelandic lack this distinction).
After its foundation in 1961, the Institut for Iransk Filologi was an independent institution until 1981. Professor Kaj Barr (q.v.) was the first head of the institute (1961-67) and was succeeded by Professor Jes P. Asmussen (1968-81). From 1981 to 1983 the Institute of Iranian Philology was administratively united with Det Centralasiatiske Institut (the Institute of Central Asian Studies), Institut for Indisk Filologi (the Institute of Indian Philology), and Institut for Semitisk Filologi (the Institute of Semitic Philology). In 1983 these four institutes were gathered in one new institute, Institut for Orientalsk Filologi (the Institute of Oriental Philology), which existed until the academic year 1991-92. Professor Jes P. Asmussen was the head of the institute during 1989-90. In 1992 the Institute of Oriental Philology merged with Carsten Niebuhr Instituttet, which before 1992 consisted of the departments of Assyriology, Egyptology, and Near Eastern Archeology; the new name of the institute became Carsten Niebuhr Instituttet for nœrorientalske studier (The Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies). In 2003 and 2004 a new, much bigger institute will be created in which the Carsten Niebuhr Institute will merge with Asian Studies, the Institute of Eskimology, the East European Institute, and the Institute of the History of Religion.
In the last 40 years Iranian Studies at the University of Copenhagen has witnessed a change in focus from pre-Islamic philological studies to studies of modern Persian language and literature; and because of the mergers between institutes there has been an increase in interdisciplinary research and teaching, especially among the departments of Arabic, Hebrew, Iranian, and Turkish studies (this last reopened in 1997) in the fields of modern language and literature. For examples of these developments, see the list of selected monographs in the bibliography; these were published under the aegis of the institutes of which Iranian studies has been a part.
In this article we investigate statistical machine translation (SMT) into Germanic languages, with a focus on compound processing. Our main goal is to enable the generation of novel compounds that have not been seen in the training data. We adopt a split-merge strategy, where compounds are split before training the SMT system, and merged after the translation step. This approach reduces sparsity in the training data, but runs the risk of placing translations of compound parts in non-consecutive positions. It also requires a postprocessing step of compound merging, where compounds are reconstructed in the translation output. We present a method for increasing the chances that components that should be merged are translated into contiguous positions and in the right order and show that it can lead to improvements both by direct inspection and in terms of standard translation evaluation metrics. We also propose several new methods for compound merging, based on heuristics and machine learning, which outperform previously suggested algorithms. These methods can produce novel compounds and a translation with at least the same overall quality as the baseline. For all subtasks we show that it is useful to include part-of-speech based information in the translation process, in order to handle compounds.
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