Qawwali - Devotional Songs of The Sufi Mystics
Malwa Jatt
I am posting the following article in response to many inquiries about
True Qawwali. This is a research paper I submitted for an independent
research class at The University of California, Davis; December 1994.
I have tried to do as much research as possible on the subject and I have
tried to cite any ideas or thoughts that were not mine. If I have over
looked any citation, I humbly appoligise. I do not claim to be an expert
in Qawwali, Islam, or Sufism.
If I have overlooked anything, wrongly given data, or unknowingly
offended anyone please let me know, also let me know if you have any
INTELLIGENT comments or questions (please, nothing like you spelled a word
wrong or that you put three spaces instead of two).
Teginder Singh Dhanoa
****************************************************************************
Qawwali - Devotional Songs of the Sufi Mystics
Teginder Singh Dhanoa
****************************************************************************
Table of Contents
I Qawwali
II Hand-Outs
1) Instruments Used During a Qawwali Performance
2) Raags
III Works Cited and Bibliography
*****************************************************************************
North India (1) is a land that has seen many syntheses. This was the
land that European traders traveled through on their journeys to trading
cities in other parts of India and China alike. The gypsies of Rajasthan
migrated up to Northern India and adopted some of the Northerners' traditions
and proceeded to travel along the paths of traders. They eventually found
themselves in Europe. The greatest integration of cultures took place during
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries when Mughals rampaged through Northern
India on their quest to conquer the country.
The Mughals saw Islam as the most practical faith and felt that it was
"superior" to the religion of the native Indians. In order to spread the
religion of Islam, the Mughals put any Kafir (non-believer) who would not
embrace their faith to the sword. Thousands of Hindu temples were razed to
the ground, yet this did not cause a major conversion of Hindus to the
religion of their conquerors. The vast majority of converts were persuaded
by a group of peaceful men that followed the train of soldiers. These men
were known as Sufis.(2)
The Sufis form a mystical sect of Islam, and their name comes from the
word Suf which means wool. "Suf refers to the cloth worn by early ascetics
that preferred its symbolic simplicity to richer materials."(3) Along
with a simple style of dress, the Sufis led a very austere lifestyle. They
set store on poverty, and like the Prophet Mohammed (Peace Be Upon Him), they
fasted and meditated to achieve a mystical experience much like that of the
Prophet.(4) Their "down to earth" life-style was not the only factor in
converting many people. The deciding factor for many was the Sufis' love
towards mankind.
In Hinduism the caste system created a great hierarchy of classes
in which many people, such as the untouchables, were seen as sub-servient.
The Sufis, on the other hand, saw them all as brothers and sisters. Where
the upper-class Hindus would not even let the untouchables walk by their
homes, the Sufis would invite them in and embrace them as their own.
The converts were no longer seen as low class citizens, "they were given
titles of honor like Sheikh, Malik, Khalifa, or Mu'min."(5)
To appeal to the natives the Sufis studied other cultures, languages,
and religions. They learned the language of the natives (Medieval Hindi)
while teaching them the language of Islam (Arabic) and other languages of the
Middle East, such as Persian and Turkish. The Sufis then used the knowledge
they gained to spread Islam. Initially, they did not form a definite sect of
Islam nor did they have a uniform doctrine. Eventually, however, sects within
Sufism developed and each sect adopted its own leaders and Pirs
(saints).(6)
The new converts adapted their faith to suit the way of thinking
that they had been accustomed to. While they wanted to obey the five
pillars of Islam(7), the one that was not possible for many to fulfill was
the Hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca. Yet, the n ew Muslims wanted to make
some sort of pilgrimage, so many saw fit to travel to the tombs or
residences of near-by Sufi saints. During gatherings at these tombs and
at Mosques, the devotees would listen to the poetry of their masters, sung
by musicians k nown as Qawwals.
The Qawwals' form of singing was known as Qawwali. Qawwali means
"utterance" in Persian and comes from the word qaul which means "to tell".
Put very simply Qawwali is a form of devotional music. Music has not had
a very orthodox role in Islam; orthodox Islam has a negative attitude
towards music and dancing.(8) The adoption of music and dance in Sufism is
unclear and the origin of Qawwali is also very confusing. There have been
many contradictory theories as to the origin of this mystic worship. Many
believe that "Qawwali originated with the foundation of the Chisti order
of Sufis in Khorosan [Eastern Persia] in the early tenth century and was
brought to the Indian Sub-Continent in the twelfth century".(9) Others
believe Qawwali's original creator to be specifically Hazrat(10) Amir
Khusrou. There is also a theory that Qawwali came from Khorosan and was
given its present form or was introduced to Ancient India by Hazrat Amir
Khusrou.(11) Nonetheless it is generally agreed that Qawwali originated with
the Chisti order of Sufism, and Hazrat Amir Khusrou(12) had an important
part in its popularity in Ancient India.
Qawwali has a specific goal besides just spreading the "messages"
of Sufi saints. The singing or reading of the Koran is a way to make
people more aware of its content. The Sufis felt that the best way to
appeal to potential Indian converts was through singing the Koran rather
than reading it. Singing and music had always been an integral part of
Indian worship, thus Qawwali was an easy transition for them to adopt.(13)
"What makes music essential to Sufism is the sama, the central ritual of
"listening to mystic songs - poems set to music - as a means of spiritual
advancement."(14) The "music" in Qawwali is vital, but more important is
the effect that the music has on the listener.(15) Qawwali is seen as a
medium through which a performer and listener can be transported closer to
God. "Qawwali's ultimate goal [is] to facilitate a state of grace or
enlightenment, of union with God, known as Wisal".(16) The only way to reach
the state of Wisal is through music.
"Music is the vehicle to reach the heart and attain a state of
grace or enlightenment, a 'stateless state' or 'Ma'rifat'(17)- the inner
knowledge".(18) Qawwali has a very set procedure of delivery. It is set
in the North Indian semi-classical(19) singing style but has a touch of
folk music in it. Being semi-classical, the singing of Qawwali relies
upon sophisticated Raags(20), combined with exultant spontaneity. Each
Qawwali performance begins with a Naghma (an instrumental prelude). The
main objective of the Naghma is to focus the listeners' attention to the
music. The Naghma is followed by the Alaap, which is an introductory
verse sung solo with only one accompanying instrument. The purpose of the
Alaap is to introduce the topic of the Qawwali to the present
listeners.(21) Judging from the audience's response to the Alaap, the
Qawwal has two options. If the response is favorable, the Qawwal can
continue with the Qawwali he(22) started. If the response to the Alaap is
not favorable, the Qawwal can start singing another Alaap on a different
topic to see if it fares better with the devotees.
Each Qawwali, like the North Indian singing style, is based on a
Raag. Also known as Raga or Ragan, the Raag is "an immensely intricate
system of scales and associated melodic patterns. There are some 200 main
Raags, each of which is defined by its unique combination of
scale-pattern, dominant notes, specific rules to be obeyed in ascending or
descending and certain melodic phrases associated with it."(23) The Raag
is a specific melody but improvisation is also accepted as long as it
falls within the "rules" of each Raag. Raags have many origins, but most
are derived from folk tunes and ballads. Certain individuals, such as
Hazrat Amir Khusrou, have been acknowledged for creating specific Raags.
There are thousands of Raags in existence, but vocalists often sing only a
handful that they have an affinity for.
The Raag sets the melody for a Qawwali, while the rhythm is
derived from specific Taals. Taals are "specific structures expressed
through cycles, which can be clapped out by hand. A Taal is made up of a
number of beats (Matras), and each beat is defined by a combination of
rhythm pattern and timbre."(24) Just as there are thousands of Raags in
existence there are also thousands of Taals, but only a few are commonly
used.
The Raag is "obeyed" by the singers and the accompanying
instruments. In Qawwali the original accompanist was the Sarangi, a
fret-less bowed instrument which has an unknown origin of time or
place.(25) It has a double belly, a wide finger board, and the hollow is
covered by a parchment, usually deer skin. The whole instrument is carved
from a single block of wood, including both finger-board and body. It has
three or four main strings and anywhere up to forty sympathetic ones. The
Sarangi is said to be the closest instrument to the human voice in the
world. Because of its unique characteristics, it is the most common
accompanying instrument in Indian music. The instrument of one-hundred
colors (the Sarangi's literal meaning) is also considered the hardest to
play in the world. Accessibility is not a problem, as many Sarangi
players are available.(26) The problem of using the Sarangi in Qawwali is
the time needed to re-tune the Sarangi between Qawwalis. Because each
Qawwali is sung in a different Raag, the Sarangi has to be re-tuned every
time which can take up to half an hour. The Sarangi was eventually
replaced by a new accompanist, the Harmonium.
The Harmonium is a small, portable, hand-pumped organ introduced
to South India by Christians in the seventeenth century. It "is pumped by
moving the bellows at the rear with the left hand while playing the
keyboard with the right."(27) Being much more portable and "practical" in
Qawwali than the Sarangi, the Harmonium is now the main accompanist for
Qawwalis.
The Harmonium replaced the Sarangi in keeping melody due to its
"practicality", but there is no data on why the Dholak(28) was replaced by
the Tabla in keeping rhythm. "The Tabla is a set of two small drums
played with the palms and fingertips capable of producing an incredible
variety of sounds and timbres, in a range of about one octave."(29) The
little drum, called the Tabla, provides the higher pitched notes and is
usually played with the right hand. The larger drum is called the Bayan
(which means left in Hindi) or Dhama in the Panjabi language. It provides
the lower pitched sounds and is usually played with the left hand. With
the beat of the Tabla and the hand-clapping of the chorus the Qawwali
performance is able to reach an electrifying crescendo.
The main text of the Qawwali is sung in a universal style with the
main Qawwal(30) singing a melodic line that is always reinforced by the
Sarangi or Harmonium, and is then repeated by a chorus. After the Alaap,
the chorus, hand-clapping and Tabla join in the performance. Each line is
repeated at least twice and some lines are repeated many times. "Lines
and words are repeated [numerous times] until all meaning is exhausted and
only the purity of the form remains."(31) As the Qawwali goes on, the
tempo and intensity build to electrifying heights where the concept of
Zikr, repeating God's name over and over again, is usually initiated.
During the process of Zikr, it is common for members of the audience to
start to chant along with the Qawwals, to sway, to move their heads
rhythmically, to enter a trance, or even fall into physical convulsions.
"This is 'the state of mind' or 'hal' reached at the climax of the music
and the point where money is showered on to the stage by the ecstatic
audience."(32)
In ancient times there were often no physical stages. The Qawwals
sat on the floor alongside the devotees. Nowadays it is not uncommon to
see Qawwalis being performed on the biggest stages in the world and in the
largest of arenas. Much has changed in Qawwali since its rise in
popularity among non-Sufis. Whereas, traditionally, Qawwali was sung in
Persian or Turkish, with an occasional word of Hindi(33), it is now sung
in many languages. Urdu and Panjabi are the primary languages of Qawwali
today, while others include Arabic(34), Hindi, and Pastho, along with the
traditional Persian and Turkish.
No matter what language Qawwali is sung in, it has always had one
common trait; the extensive use of idioms. The novice listener can be
confused by the seemingly unorthodox lyrics about wine and love. What the
layman does not understand is that wine is the "knowledge and love of God
which intoxicates the initiate."(35) The reference of worldly love such as
a woman longing to meet her beloved is a reference of man waiting to be
reunited with the all-mighty(36). The Sufis use their rustic life style
and common ways to express their ideas to the masses. In their seemingly
simple language, a spinning wheel can represent the cycle of births and
deaths.(37)
While language is an important part of the Sama experience, it is
not the most critical. A good Qawwal can transport an entire audience of
foreigners to a state of Hal, even when they do not understand a single
word of the Qawwali.(38) The foreign world was first introduced to
Qawwali some hundred years ago when sound recording came to India.
In the early part of this century, sound recordings of Qawwalis
were done in Bombay by the Gramophone Company of India.(39) Many foreign
based companies also captured this art on record, such as the Berlin based
Bumb & Kong who supposedly recorded over 300 cuts of Qawwali. America was
first introduced to Qawwali in 1975 when The Asia Society organized the
tour of The Sabri Brother Qawwals of Pakistan. They gave a second tour in
1978 to a sold out Carnegie Hall. The United States was once again
reunited with Qawwali in 1989 during the Academy of Music's next Wave
Festival.(40)
In 1989 the United States was graced by, undoubtedly the greatest
Qawwal alive, Qawwal Ustad(41) Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan. Khan-Sahib(42)
hails from the illustrious Khan lineage of Sufi Qawwals that dates back to
the twelfth century. He was born on 13 October, 1948 in Faisalabad,
Pakistan. His grandfather was the illustrious Ustad Maula Baksh Ali Khan
and his father was Ustad Fateh Ali Khan. Khan Sahib's rise to fame in
such a short time (approx. 1970 to the present)(43) is due to his intense
devotion to the music, his sophisticated style, and his unbelievable speed
in reciting Raags. He has worked with famous western artists such as
Peter Gabrielle and John Gabarack. He has also performed a song on the
Soundtrack for "The Last Temptation of Christ", and has also worked with
many artists in England.(44) Khan-Sahib has given concerts all over the
world, including Japan, France, England and America (even as close as U.C.
Berkeley). Although he has made many modern Qawwali tracks with the use
of synthesizers and drums, Khan-Sahib still follows the centuries-old
performance traditions when in concert.
It has been a custom for any Mehfil-e-Sama (concert of listening)
to begin with a Hamd, a song in the praise of God, Allah. The next
Qawwali is always a Naat-e-Kalaam, a song in the praise of Mohammed
(P.B.U.H). The third Qawwali is always a Manqbat Ali, a song in the
Praise of Hazrat Ali Sahib(45), which is usually the Qawwali, "Mun Kunto
Maula."(46) After these first three obligatory Qawwalis have been
sung(47), the Qawwal is free to chose any Qawwali he sees fit or is
demanded by the audience(48). The program usually proceeds with a Manqbat
dedicated to a saint, where Zikr of the saints name is repeated instead of
"Allah".(49) During many modern Qawwali concerts, Qawwals also sing
romantic songs, Ghazals, in the Qawwali style. The last Qawwali in a
Mehfil is always "Raang" (literally translates as "Color"). It is a
Qawwali in medieval Hindi, written and composed by Hazrat Amir Khusrou
that celebrates Sheikh Khwaja Nizam-ud-Din Auliya accepting Hazrat Amir
Khusrou as his disciple.
From the times of Hazrat Amir Khusrou, the singing of the first
Qawwali in India to the present, Qawwali has not changed much in either
its performance or its effect. Devotees still go to hear the texts of
their Sufi saints sung by Qawwals, and many throughout the world are
transported to the state of Wisal by the music of the Qawwals. Whether a
Qawwali is sung on the marble floors of a mausoleum by a group of three
Qawwals, by a group of ten in the famous "Theater de la Vile" in Paris, or
even on the stage of "Zellerbach Auditorium" on the U.C. Berkeley campus,
Qawwals are truly, as Ken Hunt put it, "Jellaluddin Rumi's(50) 'ecstatic
singers in sacred taverns'."
*****************************************************************************
END NOTES
1 Please note that Northern India or North India refers to the present-day
northern states of India and to their bordering states in present-day
Pakistan.
2 Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs. Delhi : Oxford
University Press, 1991. Pg. 25.
3 Glasse', Cyril. "Sufism" Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. 1989 ed.
4 Singh, Pg. 26.
5 Ibid., Pg. 27.
6 Ibid., Pg. 26.
7 The five Pillars of Islam are (1) Profession of the fact
there is only one God and his name is Allah, and his Prophet is Mohammed
(P.B.U.H.), (2) prayer five times a day, (3) almsgiving, (4) fasting, and
(5) pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime by all that are able
to make the journey.
8 Dancing has only become an integral part of one
order of Sufism, the Mevleviyya. Ibn 'Abbad of Ronda. Letters on the
Sufi Path. Trans. R.W.J. Austin. New York : Paulist Press, 1980.
9 Khan,Nusrat Fateh Ali. Shahen-Shah. Beverly Hills : Real World, 1990.
91300-2, compact disc and accompanying pamphlet.
10 A title of respect given to very important men that had spiritual
authority and have passed away.
11 Khusrou was employed as a historian and poet in the courts of
many kings, but his loyalty lay with Sheikh Khwaja Nizam-ud-Din Auliya,
leader of the Chisti order of Sufis. He is also considered the "Father"
of North Indian classical music.
12 Khusrou is accredited with inventing the Sitar, Tabla, Ghazal (a
poetic love-song), and Khayal (A type of classical singing that literally
means "imagination"). He is also acknowledged for introducing Persian
and Arabic instruments to India, as well as inventing many new Raags.
13 The Hindus in the North already had their "Bhajan" and the south had
the "Kriti". Much later, in the fifteenth century onwards, the Sikhs would
develop their "Kirtan".
14 Qureshi, Regula Burckhardt et all. "Sufi Music and the History of Oral
Tradition". Ethnomusicology and Modern Music History. ed. Stephen Blum,
Philip V. Bohlman, & Daniel M. Neuman. Urbana and Chicago: University of
Illinois Press, 1993. Pg. 107.
15 Ibid., Pg. 109
16 Hunt, Ken. Revelation-Ilham. Sutton, Surrey : Audio Rec, 1993. Pg. 3.
17 In my research I have found Wisal and Ma'rifat to be used
synonymously, though I am positive that this is incorrect.
18 Khan, Shahen-Shah.
19 "The degree of musical purity is assigned according to a scale which has
music at one extreme and words at the other. As words become more audible
and thus the meaning of the lyrics more important, so the form is considered
to be less musically pure."World Music : The Rough Guide. Ed. Simon
Broughton, Mark Ellingham, David Muddyman and Richard Trillo. London : Rough
Guides Ltd., 1994. Pg. 210.
20 For a definition of Raags please see the next paragraph or the sheet
entitled "Raags" in the handout section.
21 Alaap in the Qawwali context differs from that of Classical music in the
sense that an Alaap in classical music is a slow introduction used to
introduce the notes of a Raag one by one.
22 Note that Qawwali singers are always male.
23 World Music, Pg. 212.
24 Ibid.
25 The are many theories, but it is generally agreed that the Sarangi had
its origin in India.
26 The Sarangi started out as a folk instrument but eventually found its way
into classical music.
27 Takako, Tanaka. "Pakistan - Continued" JVC video anthology of world music
and dance. Japan : Victor Company of Japan, Ltd., 1988.
28 A small barrel-shaped drum with goatskin on both sides that is played
with the fingers and palms.
29 World Music, Pg. 211.
30 Known as the Mohri.
31 Khan, Shahen-Shah.
32 Ibid.
33 Khan, Nusrat Fateh Ali. Allah Hoo. England : Oriental Star Agencies,
1993. CDSR068, compact disc and accompanying pamphlet.
34 Most Arabic texts are from the religious scriptures of the Muslims such as
the Holy Koran or Hadith, a guide to life based on the lifestyle of the
Prophet Mohammed (P.B.U.H). Arabic was never originally a language of Qawwali.
35 Browning, Robert H. "Introduction" The Art of Qawwal. New York : World
Music Institute, 1993. Pg. 2.
36 The practice of using a woman's point of view to express mankind's love
towards God is not new to the Indian Sub-continent. Many poems had been,
and still continue to be written in that style. The Guru Granth Sahib, the
holy book of the Sikhs, is written in the same fashion.
37 The poem "Mera Yeh Charkha Nau Lakha" composed in the 16th - 17th century
by the Panjabi poet Hazrat Baba Bulleh Shah is a perfect example of this style.
The poem has the line
Har charkhey de garday main tenu yaad kardi
With every turn of my spinning wheel I remember You.
What seems a common phrase sung by women in remembrance of their husbands, is
really a play on words. It deals with Man remembering God in each cycle of
birth and death.
38 This is based on the account of Jaques Du Pont who said that Ustad Nusrat
Fateh Ali Khan was able to stir a three day audience of eighty thousand people
into ecstasy, even when many did not understand a single word of what was
being said.
Khan, Nusrat Fateh Ali. Interview with Jaques Du Pont. Nusrat Fateh Ali
Khan en Concert a Paris. Vol. 3,4,5. Paris : Ocora, 1989.
39 Hunt, Pg. 5.
40 Browning, Pg. 1.
41 Ustad is a term of respect given to Muslim artists of the highest caliber,
literally means "Teacher". The Hindu equivalent would be "Pandit", i.e.
Pandit Ravi Shankar.
42 Also a title of respect.
43 Twenty-five years is a very short time when it comes to achieving
recognition as a good Qawwal.
44 Indo-British Disc Jockey and Remixer Bally Sagoo had the following to say
about Ustad Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan after recording an album with him
"Nusrat's worldwide reputation as a professional was something I had been
aware of before meeting him but one thing that is not generally known about
him, was the ability to lay each track in one take, sheer brilliance".
Sagoo, Bally. Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan - Magic Touch (Mixes). England : Oriental
Star Agencies, 1993. CDSR030, compact disc and accompanying pamphlet.
45 Hazrat Ali was the son-in-law of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) and his cousin.
He is considered to be the first Sufi.
46 The first two lines of the Qawwali translate as
"Whoever accepts me as Master
Ali too is his Master".
These lines are from the religious text The Hadith, the sayings of the Prophet
himself (P.B.U.H) and a guide to life based on his. The remainder of the
Qawwali is written and composed by Hazrat Amir Khusrou.
Qureshi, Regula Burckhardt. Sufi Music of India and Pakistan : Sound, Context
and Meaning in Qawwali. New York : Cambridge University Press, 1986. Pg. 21.
47 This is the general procedure for most Qawwali Mehfils. In some shrines,
such as that of Sheikh Khwaja Nizam-ud-Din Auliya, it is required that "Mun
Kunto Maula" be the first Qawwali sung.
Ibid.
48 Mehfils at shrines have a slightly varying format, but I will only cover
the more mainstream concerts.
49 This practice stems from the importance of Sufi saints in the origin of
Islam in India, which is reflected by the pilgrimages made to their shrines.
The names of many saints have been integrated in Qawwalis.
"Through the repetitive, hypnotic chanting of these names the believer follows
the saints along the ecstatic path to heaven".
Khan, Shahen-Shah.
50 Hazrat Jellaluddin Rumi-Sahib (1207-1273) was a great mystic poet born in
Balkh, Afghanistan. His family was exiled from Balkh by the approach of
Genghis Khan's armies. They settled in Konya, Turkey where his father,
Hazrat Bahauddin Veled became head of a Medrese (Dervish learning community).
Rumi-Sahib eventually succeeded his father. Rumi-Sahib is
acreddited as being the founder of the wherling Dervishes. Rumi-Sahib's
life completely changed when he met a mystic by the name of Hazrat Shams of
Tabriz. Hazrat Shams of Tabriz was a wandering mystic who claimed to have
had deep communication with God. Rumi-Sahib collected Hazrat Shams' works
into many volumes. Rumi-Sahib's works are also available in numerous volumes.
*****************************************************************************
Hand-Outs
*****************************************************************************
Raags
Raag: also known as Raga or Ragan. A Raag is "a unique
combination of scale-pattern, dominant notes, specific rules to be obeyed
in ascending or descending order, and certain melodic phrases associated
with it". Raags are associated with specific times of day, seasons,
feelings, and can be either masculine or feminine. There are thousands of
Raags in existence but only a few hundred are commonly used. A Raag uses
the Indo-Pak musical scale which corresponds to the western scale as
follows:
Indo-Pak Note Western Meaning
Sa C Do The cry of the peacock
Ri D Re The sound made by a cow calling her calf
Ga E Mee The bleat of a goat
Ma F Fa The cry of the heron, and the tonic note of nature
Pa G So The note of the cuckoo or Kokila, the Indian nightingale
Dha A La The neighing of a horse
Ni B See The trumpeting of an elephant
An example of a Raag
Sa Ri Sa
Ni Sa Pa Ni Ma Pa
Ma Pa Ni Ga Re Ga Re
Sa Sa Sa Ri Ri Ri
Ga Ga Ga Ri Ri Ri
Sa Sa Sa Ri Ri Ri
Ga Ga Ga Ri Ri Ri
Sa Ri Sa Ga
Ri Ga Ri Ma
Pa Ma Ga Ma Ga Ri Sa
_______________________________________
Bhavnani, Enakshi. The Dance in India Bombay : D. B. Taraporevala Sons &
Co. Private Ltd., 1965
World Music, The Rough Guide. Ed. Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham, David
Muddyman and Richard Trillo. London : Rough Guides Ltd., 1994
******************************************************************************
Taals
"Just as the Raag organizes melody, so the rhythm is organized by
highly sophisticated structures expressed through cycles known as Taals,
which can be clapped out by hand. A Taal is made up of a number of beats
(matras), and each beat is defined by a combination of rhythm pattern and
timbre".(1)
An example of a Taal
Drum Beats: DADEE NAKA NAKA DINA
1 2 3 4
DADEE NAKA NAKA DINA2
5 6 7 8
1 World Music, The Rough Guide. Ed. Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham,
David Muddyman and Richard Trillo. London : Rough Guides Ltd., 1994
2 Bhavnani, Enakshi. The Dance in India Bombay : D. B. Taraporevala Sons &
Co. Private Ltd., 1965
*****************************************************************************
Works Cited and Bibliography
Adams, Charles J. "Islam" World Book Encyclopedia. 1992 ed.
Akihiro, Takahashi. "Pakistan" JVC video anthology of world music and
dance. Japan : Victor Company of Japan, Ltd. 1988.
Bhavnani, Enakshi. The Dance in India. Bombay : D.B. Taraporevala Sons &
Co. Private Ltd., 1965.
Browning, Robert H. "Introduction" The Art of Qawwal. New York : World
Music Institute, 1993.
Glasse', Cyril. "Sufism" Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. 1989 ed.
Hunt, Ken. Revelation-Ilham. Sutton, Surrey : Audio Rec, 1993.
Ibn 'Abbad of Ronda. Letters on the Sufi Path. Trans. John Reynald. New
Jersey : Paulist Press, 1986.
Khan, Nusrat Fateh Ali. Allah Hoo. England : Oriental Star Agencies, 1993.
CDSR068, Compact Disc and Pamphlet (author unknown).
Khan, Nusrat Fateh Ali. Interview. Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan en Concert a
Paris. Vol 3,4,5. Paris : Ocora, 1989.
Khan, Nusrat Fateh Ali. Shahen-Shah. Beverly Hills : Realworld, 1990.
91300-2, Compact Disc and accompanying pamphlet (author unknown).
Qureshi, Regula Burckhardt et al. "Sufi Music and the History of Oral
Tradition", Ethnomusicology and Modern Music History. ed. Stephen Blum,
Philip V. Bohlman, & Daniel M. Neuman. Urbana and Chicago : University
of Illinois Press, 1993.
Qureshi, Regula Burckhardt. Sufi Music of India and Pakistan : Sound,
Context and Meaning in Qawwali. New York : Cambridge University Press,
1986.
Rumi, Jalal al-Din. Mystical Poems of Rumi 2 : Second Selection. Trans.
A.J. Arberry. Vol 2. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Rumi, Jelaluddin. These Branching Moments - Forty Odes by Rumi. Trans.
John Moyne & Coleman Banks. Providence : Copper Beech Press, 1988.
Sagoo, Bally. Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan - Magic Touch (Mixes). England :
Oriental Star Agencies, 1993. CDSR030, Compact Disc and accompanying
pamphlet.
Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs. Vol 1. Delhi : Oxford University
Press, 1991.
Sorrell, Neil Fabian I. The North Indian Classical Sarangi : It's
Technique and Role. London : University Microfilms International, 1980.
Takako, Tanaka. "Pakistan - Continued" JVC video anthology of world music
and dance. Japan : Victor Company of Japan, Ltd. 1988.
Yukata Asada. "The Poetry of Qawwali" JVC video anthology of world music
and dance. Japan : Victor Company of Japan, Ltd. 1988.
World Music : The Rough Guide. Ed. Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham, David
Muddyman and Richard Trillo. London : Rough Guides Ltd., 1994.
*****************************************************************************
Teginder Singh Dhanoa
"The Malwa Jatt"
<ez05...@ucdavis.edu>
*****************************************************************************
"..but don't be satisfied with stories,
how things have gone with others. Unfold
your own myth..."
Hazrat Jelal-ud-Din Rumi Sahib
Sufi Saint (1207-1273)
*****************************************************************************