As the system was shutting down, I saw a load of scary errors, some saying that data would be lost (see pictures.)
Once it finished shutting down and restarted, everything was normal until shortly after I entered the disk pass phrase. I then got the titular error from Dracut, among others. I will post photographs I took of my screen for reference.
After attaching the SSD to my desktop and doing a little research, I followed the instructions at the end of the thread:
https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/qubes-users/TqlRVd2YqTs
I won't clutter this post with all the troubleshooting details. It should be sufficient to say I had to install the "lvm2" and "thin-provisioning-tools" in UbuntuStudio to get it to work, and I had to change "vgscan -ay" to "vgchange -ay".
I then ran "lvconvert --repair qubes_dom0/pool00" to fix an error which may have been the root of my problem. this yielded the message:
"
Transaction id 5896 from pool "qubes_dom0/pool00" does not match repaired transaction id 5895 from /dev/mapper/qubes_dom0-lvol0_pmspare.
WARNING: Sum of all thin volume sizes (957.06 GiB) exceeds the size of thin pools and the size of whole volume group (237.47 GiB)!
For thin pool auto extension activation/thin_pool_autoextend_threshold should be below 100.
WARNING: If everything works, remove "qubes_dom0/pool00_meta0".
WARNING: Use pvmove command to move "qubes_dom0/pool00_tmeta" on the best fitting PV.
"
As of now, I can at least mount the volumes to try data recovery. What I'd like to know is what might have caused the problem, and what I can do to prevent it happening again. I have saved much of the command line interactions I did in Ubuntu, I may be able to extract more details from that if any of the above is unclear.