Pollard Definition

[Kayla Munl]

Pollardingis a pruning system involving the removal of the upper branches of a tree, which promotes the growth of a dense head of foliage and branches. In ancient Rome, Propertius mentioned pollarding during the 1st century BCE.[1] The practice has occurred commonly in Europe since medieval times, and takes place today in urban areas worldwide, primarily to maintain trees at a determined height or to place new shoots out of the reach of grazing animals.[2][3]

Traditionally, people pollarded trees for one of two reasons: for fodder to feed livestock or for wood. Fodder pollards produced "pollard hay" for livestock feed; they were pruned at intervals of two to six years so their leafy material would be most abundant. Wood pollards were pruned at longer intervals of eight to fifteen years, a pruning cycle tending to produce upright poles favored for fencing and boat construction. Supple young willow or hazel branches may be harvested as material for weaving baskets, fences, and garden constructions such as bowers. Nowadays, the practice is sometimes used for ornamental trees, such as crape myrtles in southern states of the US.[4][5]

Pollarding tends to make trees live longer by maintaining them in a partially juvenile state and by reducing the weight and windage of the top part of the tree.[6] Older pollards often become hollow, so it can be difficult to determine age accurately. Pollards tend to grow slowly, with denser growth-rings in the years immediately after cutting.

Pollarding was preferred over coppicing in wood-pastures and other grazed areas, because animals would browse the regrowth from coppice stools. Historically in England, the right to pollard or "lop" was often granted to local people for fuel on common land or in royal forests; this was part of the right of estover.[7]

An incidental effect of pollarding in woodland is the encouragement of underbrush growth due to increased light reaching the woodland floor. This can increase species diversity. However, in woodland where pollarding was once common but has now ceased, the opposite effect occurs, as the side and top shoots develop into trunk-sized branches. An example of this can be seen in Epping Forest, which is within both London and Essex, UK, the majority of which was pollarded until the late 19th century. Here, the light that reaches the woodland floor is limited owing to the thick growth of the pollarded trees.

Pollards cut at about a metre above the ground are called stubs (or stubbs). These were often used as markers in coppice or other woodland. Stubs cannot be used where the trees are browsed by animals, as the regrowing shoots are below the browse line.

"Poll" was originally a name for the top of the head, and "to poll" was a verb meaning 'to crop the hair'. This use was extended to similar treatment of the branches of trees and the horns of animals. A pollard simply meant someone or something that had been polled (similar to the formation of "drunkard" and "sluggard"); for example, a hornless ox or polled livestock. Later, the noun "pollard" came to be used as a verb: "pollarding". Pollarding has now largely replaced polling as the verb in the forestry sense. Pollard can also be used as an adjective: "pollard tree".[10]

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Results: Up to thirty-two participants from fourteen high-income countries responded to the Delphi with a 25 % response rate in Round 1 and a 38 % response rate in Round 2. Consensus was reached on the technical food security definition and its dimensions. Consensus was not reached on a definition suitable for the general public. All participants agreed that food security monitoring systems provide valuable data for in-country decision-making. Favoured interventions were those that focused on upstream social policy influencing income. Respondents agreed that both national and local community level strategies were required to ameliorate food insecurity, reinforcing the complexity of the problem.

Conclusions: This study furthers the conceptual understanding of the commonly used definition of food security and its constituent dimensions. Strong advocacy is needed to ensure food security monitoring, policy and mitigation strategies are implemented. The consensus on the importance of prioritising actions that address the underlying determinants of household food security by experts in the field from across wealthy nations provides evidence to focus advocacy efforts and generate public debate.

Over two dozen abortion rights supporters attend a rally outside the South Carolina State House in Columbia, .C., on Wednesday, Aug. 23, 2023. The South Carolina Supreme Court ruled Wednesday to uphold a law banning most abortions except in the earliest weeks of pregnancy. (AP Photo/James Pollard)

Over two dozen abortion rights supporters attend a rally outside the South Carolina State House in Columbia, S.C., on Wednesday, Aug. 23, 2023. The South Carolina Supreme Court ruled Wednesday to uphold a law banning most abortions except in the earliest weeks of pregnancy. (AP Photo/James Pollard)

Democratic South Carolina Rep. Beth Bernstein leads chants at an abortion rights rally in Columbia, S.C., on Wednesday, Aug. 23, 2023. The South Carolina Supreme Court ruled Wednesday to uphold a law banning most abortions except in the earliest weeks of pregnancy. (AP Photo/James Pollard)

State Senate Majority Leader Shane Massey, a Republican, dismissed the idea that the definitions lack precise guidelines for medical professionals. He said the state has long required that doctors perform ultrasounds to provide an opportunity for patients to see the images before having an abortion.

A handful of the 30 or so people scheduled for abortions Wednesday had been served at a Planned Parenthood location in Columbia when the ruling was delivered. The remaining appointments got put on hold, according to Dr. Katherine Farris, chief medical officer of Planned Parenthood South Atlantic.

Abortion providers who violate the law could face felony charges carrying up to two years in prison and the loss of professional licenses. That threat has them interpreting these types of laws very conservatively, according to Tarleton, meaning many abortions have stopped altogether.

Associated Press writer Jeffrey Collins contributed to this report. Pollard is a corps member for the Associated Press/Report for America Statehouse News Initiative. Report for America is a nonprofit national service program that places journalists in local newsrooms to report on undercovered issues.

Diane Pollard and Olga M. Welch. "From center to margins: the importance of self-definition in research." University of Delaware Library. Accessed 28 July 2024.

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African American women -- Education (Higher) African American college teachers. Minority women -- Education (Higher) -- United States. Discrimination in higher education -- United States. Marginality, Social -- United States.

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Immunization is a cornerstone of public health policy and is demonstrably highly cost-effective when used to protect child health. Although it could be argued that immunology has not thus far contributed much to vaccine development, in that most of the vaccines we use today were developed and tested empirically, it is clear that there are major challenges ahead to develop new vaccines for difficult-to-target pathogens, for which we urgently need a better understanding of protective immunity. Moreover, recognition of the huge potential and challenges for vaccines to control disease outbreaks and protect the older population, together with the availability of an array of new technologies, make it the perfect time for immunologists to be involved in designing the next generation of powerful immunogens. This Review provides an introductory overview of vaccines, immunization and related issues and thereby aims to inform a broad scientific audience about the underlying immunological concepts.

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