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Borna Belnas
Strong evidence suggests that clothing serves as a reservoir of chemical pollutants and particles, including bioaerosols, which may have health significance. However, little is known about the role that clothing may play as a transport vector for inhaled airborne particles. Here, we contribute toward bridging the knowledge gap by conducting experiments to investigate clothing release fraction (CRF), determined as the size-dependent ratio of released to deposited particulate matter in the diameter range 0.5-10 μm. In a fully controlled chamber with low background particle levels, we deployed a programmable robot to reproducibly quantify the size-dependent CRF as a function of motion type and intensity, dust loadings, and activity duration. On average, 0.3%-3% of deposited particles were subsequently released with fabric motion, confirming that clothing can act as a vehicle for transporting airborne particles. The CRF increased with the vigor of movement and with dust loading. Rubbing and shaking the fabric were more effective than fabric stretching in resuspending particles. We also found that most of the release happened quickly after the onset of the resuspension activity. Particle size substantially influenced the CRF, with larger particles exhibiting higher values.
In geometry, parallel transport (or parallel translation[a]) is a way of transporting geometrical data along smooth curves in a manifold. If the manifold is equipped with an affine connection (a covariant derivative or connection on the tangent bundle), then this connection allows one to transport vectors of the manifold along curves so that they stay parallel with respect to the connection.
Other notions of connection come equipped with their own parallel transportation systems as well. For instance, a Koszul connection in a vector bundle also allows for the parallel transport of vectors in much the same way as with a covariant derivative. An Ehresmann or Cartan connection supplies a lifting of curves from the manifold to the total space of a principal bundle. Such curve lifting may sometimes be thought of as the parallel transport of reference frames.
By example, if E \displaystyle E is a tangent bundle of a manifold whereby X \displaystyle X is a tangent vector field, this expression means that, for every t \displaystyle t in the interval, tangent vectors in X \displaystyle X are "constant" (the derivative vanishes) when an infinitesimal displacement from γ ( t ) \displaystyle \gamma (t) in the direction of the tangent vector γ ( t ) \displaystyle \dot \gamma (t) is done.
The notion of smoothness in condition 3. is somewhat difficult to pin down (see the discussion below of parallel transport in fibre bundles). In particular, modern authors such as Kobayashi and Nomizu generally view the parallel transport of the connection as coming from a connection in some other sense, where smoothness is more easily expressed.
Further generalizations of parallel transport are also possible. In the context of Ehresmann connections, where the connection depends on a special notion of "horizontal lifting" of tangent spaces, one can define parallel transport via horizontal lifts. Cartan connections are Ehresmann connections with additional structure which allows the parallel transport to be thought of as a map "rolling" a certain model space along a curve in the manifold. This rolling is called development.
The common housefly is a mechanical vector of transmission of pathogens including parasites, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The combination of different methods for control and prevention or eradication of houseflies should be implemented to stop human or animal diseases. In high-risk areas health education, proper environmental sanitation, and personal hygiene are strongly advocated.
Musca domestica is the most common flies all over the world. More than 100 pathogens may cause diseases in human and animals by housefly. These pathogens included infantile diarrhea, anthrax, cholera, ophthalmia, bacillary dysentery, typhoid, and tuberculosis. Also, houseflies transmitted many of helminthic eggs as E. vermicularis, S. stercoralis, T. trichiura and T. caracanis, Trichomonas, Diphyllobothriam, hymenolepis, taenia, and Dipylidium species. It may also transmit protozoa cysts and trophozoites as E. histolytica and Giardia lamblia (Adenusi and Adewoga 2013a). Some bacteria carried by housefly as E. coli, Shigella species, and Salmonella, in addition to viral pathogens through its vomits or excreta. It acts as a mechanical vector for diseases transmission, i.e., contaminated water, unhygienic food handlers, and convalescent carriers.
Housefly causes mechanical transmission of pathogens from one vertebrate host to another without amplification or development of the organism within the vector. Bacterial and fungi were the most frequently isolated pathogens, parasites and viruses were the least frequently isolated pathogens (Deakpe et al. 2018).
Bacterial pathogens lead to diseases like typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis, dysentery, polio, diarrhea, tuberculosis, anthrax, and eye inflammation; virus like Rota virus, viral hepatitis, and poliomyelitis (Onyenwe et al. 2016); and fungi (Hussein 2014). The parasitological pathogens as enteric protozoa as cyst and trophozoites or helminthic eggs (Entamoena histolytica, Isospora species, Sacrocystis species, Entamoeba coli, Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia species, Cryptosporidium parvum, Trichomonas species, Dipylidium species, Hymenolepis species, and Diphyllobothrium species). Also, nematodes like helminthic eggs as Toxocara spp., Trichiuris trichiura, Strongyliod stercoralis, Taenia species, Ancyclostoma caninum, Enterobius vermicularis and larvae of Harbonema which they transport on their feet and hairy legs (Motazedian et al. 2014).
The common housefly is a mechanical vector of transmission of pathogens including parasites, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The combination of different methods for control and prevention or eradication of houseflies should be implemented to stop human or animal diseases. In high-risk areas, health education, proper environmental sanitation, and personal hygiene are strongly advocated.
There is a parameterized curve $\gamma(\tau)$ on a $4$-dim manifold. The self-parallel vector $X^\alpha(\tau)$ to the curve is to be found. By definition of auto parallel vectors, the covariant derivative of a vector along the curve must be zero.
Stemflow is an essential hydrologic process shaping the soil of forests by providing a concentrated input of rainwater and solutions. However, the transport of metazoans by stemflow has yet to be investigated. This 8-week study documented the organisms (
This pilot study showed for the first time that stemflow is a transport vector for numerous small metazoans. By connecting tree habitats (e.g., bark, moss, lichens or water-filled tree holes) with soil, stemflow may influence the composition of soil fauna by mediating intensive organismal dispersal.
For soil, stemflow provides a concentrated input of rainwater containing solutes and microorganisms. Hence, around the trunk both the amount of moisture and the concentrations of, e.g., Na+, K+, Ca++, and NH4+ will be higher [1]. In addition, fungi and bacteria transported by stemflow contribute to shaping the soil microfaunal community [1].
Therefore, in this study we examined the stemflow of three species of middle European trees (Quercus robur, Fagus sylvatica, and Carpinus betulus). Our main goals were: (1) to document the abundances of metazoan taxa transported by stemflow, focusing on nematode diversity, and (2) to document stemflow-mediated transport by different middle European broad-leaved tree species.
As stemflow may be a possible vector for the passive dispersal of organisms we hypothesized that it contains a diverse composition of typical colonizers of bark, moss, lichens, and water-filled tree holes, especially, nematodes and rotifers (mainly bdelloidea) but also of other metazoans (
This is the first known investigation to document the quantity and composition of small organisms transported by the stemflows of three species of Middle European trees. We show that stemflow is a crucial vector for the transport of small metazoans from tree surfaces down to soil.
Consistent with hypothesis H1, we identified several taxa that were transported by stemflow (rotifers, nematodes, tardigrades, mites, and collembolans). These organisms, already known from soil systems and tree surfaces, are often associated with adjacent habitats, including moss, lichens, and water-filled tree holes [7, 10, 28,29,30]. The 15 identified species of nematodes were all colonizers of the soil and trees of forest ecosystems [31,32,33]. The two predominant nematodes species in our study, C. andrassyi and L. penardi, were previously shown to be strongly abundant in epiphytic moss from the same sampling site [34] and in water-filled tree holes from other locations [21]. Both species were predominant in aeroplancton collected at the same site [15]. This finding is an important indication how nematodes enter tree habitats. Surprisingly, in water-filled tree holes from the same forest area as the collected stemflow, these two species were not represented [10]. Instead, Plectus cirratus/acuminatus dominated, which were, however, rare in stemflow.
While our results indicated differences in the composition of organisms transported by stemflow (according to H2), only a thorough investigation of all metazoans in stemflow and on tree surfaces will finally provide insights into the underlying reasons.
Staelens et al. [3] measured an annual stemflow volume of 10,200 L collected from a single F. sylvatica (30 m high, 0.68 m breast high diameter, 0.36 m2 basal area, 180 m2 canopy area). Based on our results, on average 1.6 million metazoans (1.2 million rotifers, 216,000 nematodes, 160,000 tardigrades, 73,000 mites and 25,000 collembolans) are transporter by stemflow per year from a single beech tree. For comparison, mean annual abundances of 650,000 rotifers, 1 million nematodes, 51,000 tardigrades, 31,900 mites and 37,800 collembolans per square meter can be expected in forest soils [20, 28, 44, 45].
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