private / passenger-owned vehicles. Ergo, shared mobility actors, such as fleet operators / app-based aggregators, can lead and accelerate the EV penetration because they generate more km on their vehicles. They can amortize the high upfront
costs over more travel in a shorter payback time frame, despite a higher TCO (Total Cost of Ownership) per km (Arora. N and Raman. A, 2019). For instance at current crude prices and electricity tariffs, when an electric four-wheeler is compared
to an ICE powered 4W - it provides operational savings of Rs 3.07/km and Rs 4.57/km to fleet operators and private owners respectively. The high upfront costs get recovered in five years for a fleet operator, which takes almost 11.5 years when driven for private use. Fleet operators provide the necessary scale and ability to manage with limited infrastructure: resolving the classic question of EV first or the charging infrastructure"
Keeping aside commercial and public transit agencies aside for a moment, could other institutes like cooperative societies, schools etc. invest into EV to be used as shuttle service for their members? Shuttle service could help solve last mile connectivity problem.