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Lorujama Antrikin
Religious thought is crystalized into images. The art of the era followed fixed principles, mostly religious and classical themes with a strict hierarchy. The only way an artist could put his personal touch to a painting was by adding specific and minute details in the background. The sculptors followed these same principles although they had less leeway in expressing themselves than the painters.
With no effective medicine, anybody could fall ill at any time, or suffer a scratch or wound which became infected and they died. Countless women died in childbirth. Countless children died pitifully young. Countless millions starved to death unrecorded and unlamented. Millions died horribly in the repeated epidemics of plague which swept across the known world. And countless millions lived in villages or towns where any day, out of the blue, soldiers in armour arrived and started killing, raping and burning everything, for reasons concocted in the faraway courts of London or Paris or Dijon, and which the victims would never hear about or understand.
Contesting the Middle Ages is a thorough exploration of recent arguments surrounding nine hotly debated topics: the decline and fall of Rome, the Viking invasions, the Crusades, the persecution of minorities, sexuality in the Middle Ages, women within medieval society, intellectual and environmental history, the Black Death, and, lastly, the waning of the Middle Ages.
Even Montaignes religious beliefs inclined towards the settled and tried as a remedy for endless experiments: I accept other peoples choices, and stay in the position where God put me. Otherwise I could not keep my self from rolling about incessantly.
Though the Council of Trent (15451563) is often cited as the high point of the Catholic CounterReformation, Bouwsma points out that Protestants felt a similar need for selfdefinition after the experimentation of the early sixteenth century. Lutherans approved the Formula of Concord in 1577 and the Reformed met in the Synod of Dort in 1619. Most ecclesial groups emphasized creeds as a way to evaluate orthodoxy or the lack thereof. A similar return to principles may be detected in the arts, where the three unities in drama and classical models replaced a more freewheeling spirit. Bouwsma concludes, The general impression this period presents is one of tension between the fundamental needs of both freedom and order.
Some readers may be tempted into thinking that Bouwsma has projected back onto the late Renaissance our contemporary feeling of dislocation and anxiety. In a few instances, such as when he characterizes Renaissance skepticism as in part a denial that language can be anything more than arbitrary or can correspond to reality, there is a whiff of anachronism. But the fact that it is only a whiff and that such instances are rare is one measure of his overall achievement. That our worries make us sensitive to similar feelings five hundred years ago is, in Bouwsmas capable hands, a useful and enlightening corrective to the usual overly rosy picture of the Renaissance.
And the tale he tells has another moral for us. The waning and end of the Renaissance produced the Enlightenment, an age with which we really were in a direct line of descent until recently. Our time may parallel the late Renaissance in that the liberations of the last century and the bloody attempts at order in reaction to them may indicate that we, too, are headed for a new synthesis of those two perennial human needs, freedom and order. It has happened before.
Robert Royal is President of the Faith and Reason Institute.
Among other topics, the author examines the violent tenor of medieval life, the idea of chivalry, the conventions of love, religious life, the vision of death, the symbolism that pervaded medieval life, and aesthetic sentiment. We view the late Middle Ages through the psychology and thought of artists, theologians, poets, court chroniclers, princes, and statesmen of the period, witnessing the splendor and simplicity of medieval life, its courtesy and cruelty, its idyllic vision of life, despair and mysticism, religious, artistic, and practical life, and much more.Long regarded as a landmark of historical scholarship, The Waning of the Middle Ages is also a remarkable work of literature. Of its author, the New York Times said, "Professor Huizinga has dressed his imposing and variegated assemblage of facts in the colorful garments characteristic of novels, and he parades them from his first page to the last in a vivid style."An international success following its original publication in 1919 and subsequently translated into several languages, The Waning of the Middle Ages will not only serve as an invaluable reference for students and scholars of medieval history but will also appeal to general readers and anyone fascinated by life during the Middle Ages.
This classic study of art, life, and thought in France and the Netherlands during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ranks as one of the most perceptive analyses of the medieval period. A brilliantly creative work that established the reputation of Dutch historian John Huizinga (1872-1945), the book argues that the era of diminishing chivalry reflected the spirit of an age and that its figures and events were neither a prelude to the Renaissance nor harbingers of a coming culture, but a consummation of the old.
Among other topics, the author examines the violent tenor of medieval life, the idea of chivalry, the conventions of love, religious life, the vision of death, the symbolism that pervaded medieval life, and aesthetic sentiment. We view the late Middle Ages through the psychology and thought of artists, theologians, poets, court chroniclers, princes, and statesmen of the period, witnessing the splendor and simplicity of medieval life, its courtesy and cruelty, its idyllic vision of life, despair and mysticism, religious, artistic, and practical life, and much more.
Long regarded as a landmark of historical scholarship, The Waning of the Middle Ages is also a remarkable work of literature. Of its author, the New York Times said, "Professor Huizinga has dressed his imposing and variegated assemblage of facts in the colorful garments characteristic of novels, and he parades them from his first page to the last in a vivid style."
An international success following its original publication in 1919 and subsequently translated into several languages, The Waning of the Middle Ages will not only serve as an invaluable reference for students and scholars of medieval history but will also appeal to general readers and anyone fascinated by life during the Middle Ages.
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The head was the chief symbolic part of the body for Western culture in the Middle Ages, from the waning days of the Roman empire to the Renaissance. Since antiquity it signified not only the intellect, the center of power, but was also regarded as the seat of the soul. The face is not only central to identity, but is also the primary vehicle for human expression, emotion, and character. As such, the depiction of the head becomes a true test of the quality of the artist and a telling indicator of style. Sculptured heads in museums have lost their original context, whether by violent breaking from their bodies and from the monuments they once adorned, or simply by being removed and placed in a museum. By focusing on this one genre of object, the Middle Ages can be seen in a new light.
The incidence of pertussis in European countries varies from 0.01 up to 50 per 100,000 inhabitants3,4. Moreover, most natural infections among adolescents and adults due to Bordetella pertussis result in mild or subclinical disease and are often not reported5. This underreporting of cases is recognised and the estimated rate of reported infections between European countries ranges from 1/1000 up to 33/1000 inhabitants, yearly6,7. To get a better estimate of the circulation of B. pertussis in the population, sero-epidemiology is a valuable tool complementary to clinical surveillance programmes. Serosurveillance of infections covered by the national vaccination programmes is important because it provides relevant information about the burden of infection and the immunological status of the population, and thus provides a tool to evaluate the risk of infection for not yet vaccinated infants. Furthermore, seroprevalence studies offer an opportunity to study waning immunity based on antibody decay in the population. Several European countries have performed such studies for pertussis (Belgium, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and United Kingdom)8,9,10,11,12,13. However, these studies are based on antibody decay only and do not take into account other immunological parameters like cellular responses affecting the whole immunity against disease. Still, they reflect one side of the immunological protection induced by antibody seroprevalence. Furthermore, comparing serosurveillance studies between countries is not easy due to the wide variety of cohort selection criteria and laboratory tests that were used9.
The high proportion of sera with unprotected levels for diphtheria is of concern, leaving at least a quarter up to over three-quarters of the middle-aged adult population sampled not well protected against diphtheria. Since the infection is toxin mediated, protection will mainly be provided through specific antibodies, but after waning of these antibodies other cellular immunological mechanisms can still play a role in diphtheria immunity. Presumably the vaccine-induced antibody levels against diphtheria have waned in these middle-aged adult cohorts, while the original responses to the primary series in the first year of life would be expected to have been good and in many countries (several) boosters have been administered during childhood. In some countries DT boosters are administered when people travel to endemic countries, but this is too sporadic to influence the outcome of this study. From an epidemiological perspective the protection against diphtheria seems sufficient because no increase in cases has been noticed in EU/EEA during the last decades but import from locations with diphtheria outbreaks remains a real threat. Age, sex and country affected the seroprotection levels in this study. The age effect can be explained by waning immunity due to ageing. The country effect can be attributed to the different vaccination schedules, but not to the used vaccines because the Dt component is similar in most combination vaccines. The sex effect is rather surprising, and might be interpreted as a sex-specific difference in immunity but has been described recently in another study of the European diphtheria surveillance network39. Moreover, a trend towards higher IgG-Dt antibody levels in females compared to males in 12/16 countries was found reaching significance in five countries. Waning of diphtheria immunity over the years appears to proceed faster in males than in females. Overall, the protection against diphtheria in EU/EEA in the older age groups is suboptimal and certainly not sufficient, and might indicate a need for boosting immunity. It emphasises the potential risk of suboptimal protection against diphtheria in a time of high population mobility, outbreaks in certain parts of the world and the global shortage of diphtheria antitoxin.
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