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A volcanic hazard refers to any potentially dangerous volcanic process that puts human lives, livelihoods or infrastructure at risk of harm. Several hazards may affect the area around the volcano, such as lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars, jkulhlaups and landslides or debris avalanches. Volcanic activity also produces hazards that can affect areas far from the volcano, such as tephra or ash falls, releases of gas and tsunamis. Such hazards can impact areas hundreds or thousands of kilometres from the volcano, with the potential for significant health and economic impacts (BGS, 2012).
Even though volcanoes can be dangerous, there are lots of reasons why people live alongside them. There can be emotional, societal and economic benefits. For those living alongside volcanoes, knowing about volcanic hazards is just one way that people can reduce their risk.
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The fine-grained nature of volcanic ash means it is easily transported by winds to distance of hundreds to thousands of kilometres away from the volcano. It may also be sent up high into the air, sometimes reaching the stratosphere. Ash is made up of small, sharp, angular fragments of glass and other volcanic rock; due to its abrasive nature, volcanic ash can cause damage to aircraft.
Roof damage and collapse caused by volcanic ash from eruptions of Soufrire Hills Volcano, Montserrat, in 1995. Many buildings with galvanised corrugated steel roofs and cars were badly damaged by acid rain, which was produced when rain mixed with volcanic gases and ash. BGS UKRI.
Various gases can be emitted by active volcanoes before, during or after an eruptive event and can cause various health hazards locally, but also have the potential to affect the climate globally. The five main gases that pose a threat to health are:
People can be exposed to harmful volcanic gases by breathing them in or through contact with the skin and eyes. The health effects range from mild to serious, with occasional deadly exposures. After exposure, people may report difficulty breathing and itchy skin.
Lava flows are flows of magma extruded onto the surface of a volcano. In general, it is rare for lava to cause the direct loss of life, because it usually flows slowly, allowing sufficient time for people to be evacuated. It does, however, destroy everything in its path by a combination of burial, crushing and heat. Such eruptions are also associated with emission of volcanic gases and aerosols.
Lava domes form when high-viscosity lava is slowly erupted from a volcano. Because of the high viscosity of the lava, it cannot travel far from the vent and a dome of lava builds up. These lava domes are particularly hazardous as they tend to be unstable and can collapse, causing pyroclastic density currents.
Flood basalts are an exceptional form of lava flow. These eruptions are rare and our understanding of these events is based on study of past eruptions at places like the Deccan Traps in India, or the Siberian Traps. Such eruptions impact large, up to continental-sized areas (over one million square kilometres), They can have thicknesses up to a kilometre and release large amounts of gas; they can cause air pollution and even have an impact on the global climate.
Pyroclastic flows can occur during explosive eruptive activity, where the mixture of gas and ash emitted from the volcano is too dense to rise buoyantly into the atmosphere, Instead, it collapses around the volcano.
Volcanoes that erupt very viscous lavas that form domes can also produce pyroclastic flows if the dome becomes unstable. Pyroclastic flows are produced when large portions of the dome collapse and disintegrate.
Pyroclastic flows produce deposits of hot ash and rocks around the flanks of the volcano. Temperatures may exceed 400C in material that is several months old. These pictures show typical deposits from dome collapse and fountain collapse pyroclastic flows.
Debris avalanches and landslides are common, but are not necessarily caused by an actual volcanic eruption or volcanic activity. They can be triggered as the result of a volcanic explosion or dome collapse, particularly in environments where heavy rainfall is common. Debris avalanches tend to become channelled into valleys and can travel large distances well beyond their source areas. It is difficult to reduce the impact of debris avalanches because they can occur without warning, even on dormant volcanoes, and can devastate large areas. Once initiated, it is almost impossible to evacuate areas in the paths of debris avalanches because of the great speed with which they travel.
Lahar is a Javanese word for a type of volcanic mudflow made up of volcanic debris and hot or cold water. Lahars move at speeds that range from less than 10 kph up to tens of kilometres per hour. They can occur as a result of eruptions involving ice or snow, which can generate large amounts of meltwater, or they can be triggered, or mobilised, by heavy rainfall. As these debris-laden flows move down river valleys, they can gather more and more loose material.
Viscous mudflows may contain more than 60 per cent sediment (40 per cent water) and have the consistency of wet concrete. Less viscous mudflows, with a higher water content, resemble torrential floods.
Lahars have been a major cause of fatalities in historic times. For example, in 1985, 23 000 people died as a result of a lahar on the Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia, the deadliest lahar event in recorded history. Fatalities and injuries from lahars can be avoided if communities are evacuated quickly to high ground.
E-cigarette emissions typically contain nicotine and other toxic substances that are harmful to both users and non-users who are exposed to the aerosols second-hand. Some products claiming to be nicotine-free (ENNDS) have been found to contain nicotine.
Nicotine exposure in pregnant women can adversely affect the development of the fetus. Further, the consumption of nicotine in children and adolescents has negative impacts on brain development, leading to long-term consequences for brain development and potentially leading to learning and anxiety disorders.
Nicotine is highly addictive and harmful to health. Additionally, high quality epidemiology studies consistently demonstrate that e-cigarettes use increases conventional cigarette uptake, particularly among non-smoking youth, by nearly 3 times. Evidence reveals that these products are harmful to health and are not safe. However, it is too early to provide a clear answer on the long-term impact of using them or being exposed to them. Whilst long-term health effects are not fully known, we do know that they generate toxic substances, some of which are known to cause cancer and some that increase the risk of heart and lung disorders. Electronic delivery systems have also been linked to a number of physical injuries, including burns from explosions or malfunctions, when the products are not of the expected standard or are tampered with by users.
There is growing evidence that ENDS could be associated with lung injuries. E-cigarettes have also been linked to an episode of lung injury in the United States of America. This is described by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as e-cigarette or vaping associated lung injury (EVALI), which led the CDC to activate an emergency investigation into EVALI on 17 September 2019.
Toxicity is not the only factor in considering risk to an individual or a population from exposure to ENDS emissions. These factors may include the potential for abusing or manipulating the product, use by children and adolescents who otherwise would not have used cigarettes, simultaneous use with other tobacco products (dual or poly use) and children and adolescents going on to use smoked products following experimentation with ENDS. Dual use, which is common, is at least as dangerous and likely more dangerous than smoking conventional cigarettes or using e-cigarettes alone. Further, not all ENDS are the same and the risks to health may differ from one product to another, and from user to user.
The aerosols generated by ENDS typically raise the concentration of particulate matter in indoor environments and contain nicotine and other potentially toxic substances. ENDS emissions therefore pose potential risks to both users and non-users.
How a country approaches ENDS will depend on factors particular to its situation. ENDS are currently banned in about 35 countries worldwide. In others they are regulated as consumer products, as pharmaceutical products, as tobacco products, in other categories or totally unregulated.
The tobacco industry profits from destroying health and is using these newer products to get a seat at the policy making table with governments to lobby against health policies. WHO is concerned that the tobacco industry funds and promotes false evidence to argue that these products reduce harm, while at the same time heavily promoting these products to children and non-smokers and continuing to sell billions of cigarettes.
To truly help tobacco users quit and to strengthen global tobacco control, governments need to scale up policies and interventions that we know work. Tried and tested interventions, such as brief advice from health professionals, national toll-free quit lines and mobile and digital cessation services are recommended. Where economically feasible, governments should also consider promoting nicotine replacement therapies and non-nicotine pharmacotherapies for cessation.
WHO stresses that Member States should implement a comprehensive approach to tobacco control which includes raising tobacco excise taxes, bans on tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship, health warnings, smoke-free areas, mass-media campaigns and supporting people to quit with proven tools such as advice from healthcare workers, toll-free quit lines, mobile and digital cessation services, and approved therapies.
Vaping nicotine can lead to physical dependence and addiction. Vaping can expose you to chemicals that can be harmful to your health. Young people and those who do not use tobacco products should not vape because it is not completely harmless.
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