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Angie Troia
I must express my especial indebtedness to ProfessorGelcich for the assistance and encouragement which heafforded me in preparing this volume. I also receivedvaluable aid from Signor V. Adamović, who kindlyplaced his library at my service during my stay atRagusa; to Signor A. de Serragli, who gave muchinformation on the topography and archeology of thetown; to the Padre Bibliotecario of the FranciscanMonastery, who assisted me in my researches; and toviiSignor Giovanni Saraca. I may say that during myvisits to Dalmatia I always found the natives courteousand kindly, and willing to assist me in every way,especially at Ragusa. Of the many features whichDalmatia has in common with Italy, the one which Imust call attention to is the fact that in every Dalmatiantown there is always at least one local antiquary whohas made a life-study of the history and archeology,working with no other thought than the love of thesubject, and always willing to assist other students.
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In the case of well-known names and words whichare usually spelt in another way, I have adhered to thecommon orthography. Thus I have written Miklosichinstead of Miklosić, and Tsar instead of Car. Dalmatiansof Italian sympathies, but having Slavonic names, invariablyuse the ch in the place of č or ć.
The Dalmatian townships had many features in theirdevelopment similar to those of the towns of Italy,especially of the maritime republics. But, unlike theirItalian sisters, they were always on the threshold ofbarbarism, and this fact imparts to their history its4peculiar character. They were essentially border fortresses,keeping watch and ward to save their civilisationfrom being swept into the sea by the advancing tide ofSlave and Turk.
Ragusa was a small city, and its history is all on asmall scale. At best she can only be regarded as a second-classcity of the first rank. In size, wealth, and intellectualand artistic development she was far inferior tothe city republics of Italy; but her close proximity to aworld of barbarism, and the vastly important events inwhich she played a part, however small, make it loomlarge. Moreover, while the other republics of Dalmatia,with the exception of the tiny Poljica, were all absorbed byVenice, while those of Italy were a constant prey to civilwars, and lost their freedom and even their independenceafter a few centuries of chequered existence, Ragusa,after two hundred and fifty years of Venetian tutelagewith internal autonomy, remained free, now under thenominal protection of this Power, now of that, for 450years, actually surviving her mighty rival of the Lagoons.
The beginnings of Dalmatian history are purelylegendary, and very little is known of the ethnographicalcharacter of its original inhabitants. Wanderers frompre-Homeric Greece are said to have settled along itsshores, followed later by the Liburnii, who had beendriven from Asia, whence part of the country was calledLiburnia by the Romans. In the seventh century B.C.a Celtic invasion took place.2 In the fifth and fourthcenturies B.C. a number of Greek colonies were plantedamong the islands at Issa (Lissa), Pharos (Lesina), andKerkyra Melaina (Curzola), and others along the coastat Epidamnos (Durazzo), Epidauron (Ragusavecchia),and Tragyrion (Tra). In the third century Illyria3 waswelded by a native ruler into a powerful kingdom, whichere long came into contact with the Romans. Thelatter made several attempts to conquer the country, butmet with a most stubborn resistance before they finallysubdued it. In the year 180 B.C. the Dalmatians, apeople inhabiting the middle part of modern Dalmatia,4revolted from the Illyrian kingdom and became independent.Their territory was comprised between therivers Naro (Narenta) and Titius (Kerka); beyond thelatter Liburnia began. During the second and first cen8turiesB.C. the Romans waged no less than ten wars inIllyria, which was not completely reduced until theyear A.D. 9.
In the meanwhile a number of Latin colonies hadbeen settled along the coast, supplanting those of theGreeks. Their splendour and importance may be gaugedfrom the magnificent Roman remains, especially those ofthe great palace built by Diocletian, himself an Illyrian,at Spalato, and of Salona,5 the ancient capital of theprovince.
When the Eastern Empire was divided into themes,the remaining fragments of the Roman colonies on theIllyrian shore were erected into the Themes of Dalmatiaand Dyrrhachium. The former is described at length byConstantine Porphyrogenitus in his De AdministrandoImperio,7 written in 949; it consisted of little morethan a few cities and islands, all the rest of the land beingpeopled by barbarians.
The capital of the Dalmatian theme was no longerSalona, which together with Epidaurum had been destroyedby the Avars in the seventh century, but Jadera or Zara.The other towns of the theme were: Veglia, Arbe, andOpsara (comprising Cherso and Lussino) in the Quarnero;10Tragurium, Spalatum or Aspalathum, and Rhagusium,founded by refugees from Salona and Epidaurum;Decatera (Cattaro), Rosa (Porto Rose), and Butova(Budua). The theme was governed by a GreekStrategos residing at Zara (Jadertinus Prior), and byinferior officials (dukes) in the smaller centres. Buttheir authority hardly extended beyond the townwalls.
The other Dalmatian towns and all the country outsidethe towns were occupied, as we have said, by the Southern11Slaves. Of these the two principal tribes were the Serbliior Serbs and the Chrobatians or Croatians. The lattersettled in the northern part of the country; their frontierswere the Save, the Kulpa, the Arsia, and the Četina.Their settlement seems to have preceded that of theSerbs. They came from the land beyond the Carpathians,with the name of which theirs may have been connected.Croatia was divided into fourteen Župe or counties, eachgoverned by a Župan. The various Župans owed a somewhatshadowy allegiance to a Grand Župan, whose titlewas afterwards changed to that of king. The Serbs, whoissued forth from what is now Galicia, settled in the landto the south and east of that of the Croatians, i.e. themodern kingdom of Servia, Old Servia, Montenegro,Northern Albania, and Dalmatia south of the Četina.For many centuries they recognised no central authority,but were divided into tribes, of which the most importantwere the Diocletiani or Docletiani, who occupied whatis now Montenegro and part of Albania; the Terbuniotae,whose country, called Terbunia or Tribunia or Travunia,centres round the modern Trebinje, with the semi-independentsouthern district of Canale or Canali;10 the coastnorth of Ragusa up to the Narenta was occupied by theZachloumoi of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, and wascalled Zachlumje, Zachulmia, Hlum, or Chelmo. It correspondsto the Herzegovina.11 About the Narenta wasthe land of the Narentani (the Ἀρεντάνοι or Παγάνοι ofPorphyrogenitus), notorious for their piratical exploits.12This tribe was converted to Christianity much later thanthe other Serbs, whence their name of Pagani. Inlandwas Bosnia, inhabited by various tribes. Still deeper inthe interior was the territory of the Serbs proper.12
WE have alluded to the destruction by the Avarsof Salona and Epidaurum,14 and the flight oftheir inhabitants to the new settlements. OfSalona extensive ruins remain, but with regard to thesite of Epidaurum there is a division of opinion amongarchologists. It is generally held that the remains ator near the village of Ragusavecchia, a few miles to thesouth-east of Ragusa, are those of the ancient Epidaurum.In the neighbouring valley of Canali (Slavonic, Konavli)there are the ruins of a Roman aqueduct. The nameRagusavecchia corroborates the tradition that it was theoriginal home of the Ragusans; while its Slavonic name,Cavtat, is undoubtedly derived from the Latin civitas.Some archologists, however, have doubts as to thispoint, and Professor Giuseppe Gelcich, than whom nogreater authority on Dalmatian history exists, is ofopinion that Epidaurum must be sought for somewhereon the Sutorina promontory in the Bocche di Cattaro.Fragments of Roman brickwork and mosaic pavementhave been found there too; and according to ProfessorGelcich, the Canali aqueduct is so built that it must have16served a city farther south than Ragusavecchia. Onthe other hand, the statements of the classical writers,especially of Pliny, seem to bear out the general opinion,which is, in fact, based on them.
This account is somewhat confused and difficult tounderstand. As far as we can make out, the peoplewere divided into three classes; i.e. the nobles, whoalone formed the Grand Council, and were either the de24scendantsof the original Latin refugees from Epidaurumand Salona, or those among the newcomers who wereof noble birth; the middle class, consisting of non-nobleburghers, the stewards, and chief retainers of the nobles,and the men of small property; the third class, whichwas composed of serfs and of the poorest citizens.Over the general assembly presided the head of theState, the Byzantine Duke, Prior, or Prses. AfterRagusa had made submission to Venice in 998 we findVenetian counts instead.31 During the intervals whenthe city was independent, and no foreign rulers wereappointed, the head of the Government was chosen bythe Council, as it was in after times. But even whensent from Venice or Constantinople he does not seemto have exercised much direct influence on the internalaffairs of the Republic.
Next in authority to the head of the State was thebishop,34 by whom the acts of the Government had tobe countersigned. The question as to who shouldappoint this dignitary was frequently a subject of disputebetween the Ragusans and the Venetians, on account ofhis political influence.
The Greek Emperors wished to pursue the Saracensinto Apulia, where they had established themselves,and the rendezvous for one part of the expedition was26Ragusa. A large force of Serbs and Croatians in thepay of the Empire congregated there, and were transportedto the Italian shore on Ragusan ships. Theexpedition was successful, Bari being recaptured, andthe Saracen power in Southern Italy broken.37 This isthe first mention we have of Ragusan shipping, whichwas afterwards to play so large a part in the history ofthe Levant trade.
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