#369 AP book of science--The History of LOGIC // Teaching True Logic textbook series by Archimedes Plutonium #369 published book of science published on Internet, Plutonium-Atom-Universe, PAU newsgroup is
Archimedes Plutonium
The History of LOGIC // Teaching True Logic textbook series
by Archimedes Plutonium
This is AP's #368 published book of science published on Internet, Plutonium-Atom-Universe,
PAU newsgroup is this.
https://groups.google.com/forum/?hl=en#!forum/plutonium-atom-universe
Author's Note: Although few people share this opinion now in February of 2026 that AP has the finest human mind on the subject of Logic. I say that not to be bragging even though most everyone else would say I am a braggart, but rather, say that for someone who has altered all of Logic of the past. The amount of altering past logic is a wholescale of altered Logic of all its 6 connectors and corrected all of Logic starting with Aristotle. I think of myself as the father of logic. And I am sure that if I had not this powerful logic mind, I would never have discovered the Atom Totality theory of physics. It is my logic abilities that carries me far above and beyond other scientists.
Logic as a subject and a science is not appreciated in modern education. Why that is I do not really know. Maybe education institutions are too busy filling up students curriculum with all sorts of subjects-- English, math, some science, that there is no more room for a mandatory course in Logic.
In the year 2025, I started to write these 4 textbooks of Logic, for I was pressuring all colleges and universities to mandatorily require science and engineering students to have 2 years of college logic training before they get their degree. I could not rightfully insist on that demand for there are no logic textbooks that have all 6 connectors of logic correct. So why insist on mandatory logic with books that have error filled logic? So I set myself out in 2025 to write 4 textbooks of Logic to teach in college and university. As the years go by, I will write a 5th textbook for High School, but I need a vacation break away from logic to resume once I am refreshed.
Preface: This is a history of Logic, for it tells the good and bad of Logic throughout its long history, its triumphs and its mistakes.
Actually there are few persons that need to be mentioned so it is not a long and struggling book.
Cover picture: A picture of James Clerk Maxwell who unified electricity and magnetism into a coherent set of laws which required much logical reasoning.
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Table of Contents
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Part 1: Prehistory Logicians
1) Neanderthals making fire with flint and iron pyrite
Part 2: Ancient Logicians
2) Thales of Miletus (626 - 548 BC) -- static electricity and magnetism
3) Pythagoras of Samos (570-495 BC) -- deductive reasoning and the link between numbers and geometry in A^2 +B^2 = C^2 for right triangles
4) Leucippus (5th century BC) and Democritus (460-370 BC) greatest of all science theories, the Atomic Theory
5) Socrates (470-399 BC)-- logic argument
6) Plato (428- 348 BC)-- being into becoming
7) Aristotle (384-322 BC)-- deductive syllogism
8) Aristarchus of Samos 270BC-- systematized the experimental science of Astronomy
Part 3: Medieval Logicians
9) Avicenna (980 -1037)-- scientific method
10) William of Ockham (1287-1347) -- Ockham's razor
Part 4: Modern day Logicians
11) George Boole (1815-1864) and William Jevons (1835-1882) -- logic connectors
12) Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)-- symbolic logic
13) James Maxwell (1831-1879)-- unification of electricity and magnetism
14) Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and Paul Dirac (1902-1984) --symmetry in science of the magnetic monopole existence
15) John Bell (1928-1990) --superdeterminism
16) Archimedes Plutonium (1950 - present)-- systematizes Logic by paralleling logic to mathematics
1) Neanderthals making fire with flint and iron pyrite
A ferrocerium "flint" spark lighter in actionWhen struck against steel, a flint edge produces sparks. The hard flint edge shaves off a particle of the steel that exposes iron, which reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere and can ignite the proper tinder.
Prior to the wide availability of steel, rocks of pyrite (FeS2) would be used along with the flint...
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Step 1-- Make observations and ask many questions.
Step 2-- Research the subject matter and Review the literature on the subject.
Step 3-- Formulate a Hypothesis of what you think is going on.
Step 4-- Conduct Experiments pertaining to your hypothesis.
Step 5-- Collect data from the experiment/s and analyze the data.
Step 6-- Draw conclusions.
Step 7-- Publish the results.
Step 6-- Draw conclusions. Step 7-- Publish the results.
So what I am trying to do here is make the Scientific Method to actually be the Logic connectors in the order of Existential quantifier then Not-Equal then AND then OR then IF-->Then, then the Universal quantifier.
So what I am trying to do here is make the Scientific Method to actually be the Logic connectors in the order of Existential quantifier then Not-Equal then AND then OR then IF-->Then, then the Universal quantifier.
Scientific Method from various sources on Internet
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Step 1-- Make observations and ask many questions.
Step 2-- Research the subject matter and Review the literature on the subject.
Step 3-- Formulate a Hypothesis of what you think is going on.
Step 4-- Conduct Experiments pertaining to your hypothesis.
Step 5-- Collect data from the experiment/s and analyze the data.
Step 6-- Draw conclusions.
Logic has 6 connectors as these.1) Existential quantifier2) Not-Equal3) AND4) OR5) If-->Then6) Universal quantifierWhat I am about to do is Parallel those 6 connectors as being one of the steps in the Scientific Method and using "Fire Making" as the example.Step 1-- Make observations and ask many questions. Parallels Existential quantifier-- there exists Fire, as seen in Lightning bolt strikes and Sun as energy (although not chemical energy)Step 2-- Research the subject matter and Review the literature on the subject.Parallels Not-Equal, for Fire making is equal to fires of the past and how to make them with flint and iron pyrite.Step 3-- Formulate a Hypothesis of what you think is going on.Parallels AND in that a multiple steps take place to get the fire started. First collect tinder, then strike the rocks flint and iron pyrite. And then have the sparks start a fire.Step 4-- Conduct Experiments pertaining to your hypothesis.Parallels OR in looking for a deciding experiment of deciding on what is the true hypothesis.Step 5-- Collect data from the experiment/s and analyze the data.Parallels the IF-->Then connector in formulating a law. If I strike the flint into the iron pyrite then I get sparks then I can start a fire.
Step 6-- Draw conclusions. Step 7-- Publish the results.Parallels the Universal quantifier in you draw up a Law of Science and it is universal and so you publish it for others to repeat the experiment.For the fire started by Neanderthals 400,000 years ago, that two rocks struck together can release fire and the whole group of Neanderthals learns how to make fire.
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Step 1-- Make observations and ask many questions.
Step 7-- Publish the results.
Yes, at first I was not sure I could get a pattern of the Scientific Method using strictly just the 6 connectors of Logic, now I am sure that is the case.
First let me fix the Scientific Method.Scientific Method from various sources on Internet
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Step 1-- Make observations and ask many questions.Step 2-- Research the subject matter and Review the literature on the subject.Step 3-- Formulate a Hypothesis of what you think is going on.Step 4-- Conduct Experiments pertaining to your hypothesis.Step 5-- Collect data from the experiment/s and analyze the data.Step 6-- Draw conclusions.
Step 7-- Publish the results.We do not need step 7.Step 1-- Make observations and ask many questions.No, I think the Scientific Method starts with a Observation of Existence and a curiosity of a idea. I think science is curiosity.
Step 2-- Research the subject matter and Review the literature on the subject.This is good, and would be Not-Equal. Is the idea equal to known ideas and whether the new idea is not equal to known ideas.
Step 3-- Formulate a Hypothesis of what you think is going on.Yes this is the IF--> Then hypothesis.
Step 4-- Conduct Experiments pertaining to your hypothesis. Step 5-- Collect data from the experiment/s and analyze the data.Yes this is the AND connector, both step 4 and step 5 is one step, the doing of experiments and collecting data and information.
Step 6-- Draw conclusions.Yes, we also need to decide between competing hypotheses and ideas and this is the OR where we have Deciding Experiments.
Step 7 would be the Universal quantifier where the idea that started the research and experiments may be a new law of science or a rule of science and the conclusion should be published for others to do the experiments.
Need a picture of Thales.
Born
c. 626/623 BC
Died
c. 548/545 BC (aged c. 78)
Philosophical work
Era
Pre-Socratic philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
School
Ionian / Milesian
Main interests
Notable ideas
Thales of Miletus (/ˈθeɪliːz/ THAY-leez; Ancient Greek: Θαλῆς; c. 626/623 – c. 548/545 BC) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. Thales was one of the Seven Sages, founding figures of Ancient Greece.
Beginning in eighteenth-century historiography,[1]many came to regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition, breaking from the prior use of mythology to explain the world and instead using natural philosophy. He is thus otherwise referred to as the first to have engaged in mathematics, science, and deductive reasoning.[2]
Thales's view that all of nature is based on the existence of a single ultimate substance, which he theorized to be water, was widely influential among the philosophers of his time. Thales thought the Earth floated on water.
In mathematics, Thales is the namesake of Thales's theorem, and the intercept theorem can also be referred to as Thales's theorem. Thales was said to have calculated the heights of the pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. In science, Thales was an astronomer who reportedly predicted the weather and a solar eclipse. The discovery of the position of the constellation Ursa Major is also attributed to Thales, as well as the timings of the solstices and equinoxes. He was also an engineer, known for having allowed the Lydian army to cross the Halys River. Plutarch wrote that "at that time, Thales alone had raised philosophy from mere speculation to practice."[3]
Scientific Method from various sources on Internet
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Step 1-- Make observations and ask many questions.Step 2-- Research the subject matter and Review the literature on the subject.Step 3-- Formulate a Hypothesis of what you think is going on.Step 4-- Conduct Experiments pertaining to your hypothesis.Step 5-- Collect data from the experiment/s and analyze the data.Step 6-- Draw conclusions.
Step 7-- Publish the results.We do not need step 7.Step 1-- Make observations and ask many questions.
Step 2-- Research the subject matter and Review the literature on the subject.This is good, and would be Not-Equal. Is the idea equal to known ideas and whether the new idea is not equal to known ideas.
Step 3-- Formulate a Hypothesis of what you think is going on.Yes this is the IF--> Then hypothesis.
Step 4-- Conduct Experiments pertaining to your hypothesis. Step 5-- Collect data from the experiment/s and analyze the data.Yes this is the AND connector, both step 4 and step 5 is one step, the doing of experiments and collecting data and information.
Step 6-- Draw conclusions.Yes, we also need to decide between competing hypotheses and ideas and this is the OR where we have Deciding Experiments.
Step 7 would be the Universal quantifier where the idea that started the research and experiments may be a new law of science or a rule of science and the conclusion should be published for others to do the experiments.
Archimedes Plutonium
Pythagoras
Born
c. 570 BC
Died
c. 495 BC (aged around 75)
Philosophical work
Era
Pre-Socratic philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
School
Pythagoreanism
Main interests
Notable ideas
Attributed ideas:
Pythagoras of Samos[a] (Ancient Greek: Πυθαγόρας; c. 570 – c. 495 BC)[b] was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher, polymath, and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His political and religious teachings were well known in Magna Graecia and influenced the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and, through them, Western philosophy. Modern scholars disagree regarding Pythagoras's education and influences, but most agree that he travelled to Croton in southern Italy around 530 BC, where he founded a school in which initiates were allegedly sworn to secrecy and lived a communal, ascetic lifestyle.
In antiquity, Pythagoras was credited with mathematical and scientific discoveries, such as the Pythagorean theorem, Pythagorean tuning, the five regular solids, the theory of proportions, the sphericity of the Earth, the identity of the morning and evening stars as the planet Venus, and the division of the globe into five climatic zones. He was reputedly the first man to call himself a philosopher ("lover of wisdom").[c]Historians debate whether Pythagoras made these discoveries and pronouncements, as some of the accomplishments credited to him likely originated earlier or were made by his colleagues or successors, such as Hippasus and Philolaus.
The teaching most securely identified with Pythagoras is the "transmigration of souls" or metempsychosis, which holds that every soul is immortal and, upon death, enters into a new body. He may have also devised the doctrine of musica universalis, which holds that the planetsmove according to mathematical ratios and thus resonate to produce an inaudible symphony of music. Following Croton's decisive victory over Sybaris in around 510 BC, Pythagoras's followers came into conflict with supporters of democracy, and their meeting houses were burned. Pythagoras may have been killed during this persecution, or he may have escaped to Metapontum and died there.
Pythagoras influenced Plato whose dialogues (especially Timaeus) exhibit Pythagorean ideas. A major revival of his teachings occurred in the first century BC among Middle Platonists, coinciding with the rise of Neopythagoreanism. Pythagoras continued to be regarded as a great philosopher throughout the Middle Ages and Pythagoreanism had an influence on scientists such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton. Pythagorean symbolism was also used throughout early modern European esotericism, and his teachings as portrayed in Ovid's Metamorphoses would later influence the modern vegetarian movement.
No authentic writings of Pythagoras have survived,[4][5] and almost nothing is known for certain about his life.[6][7] The earliest sources on Pythagoras's life, from Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Ion of Chios, and Herodotus[8] are brief, ambiguous, and often satirical.[9][10] The major sources on Pythagoras's life are three biographies from late antiquity written by Diogenes Laërtius, Porphyry, and Iamblichus, all of which are filled primarily with myths and legends[7][11][12] and which become longer and more fantastic in their descriptions of Pythagoras's achievements the more removed they are from Pythagoras's times.[11][12] However, Porphyry and Iamblichus also used some material taken from earlier writings in the 4th century BC by Aristotle's students Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and Heraclides Ponticus,[13] which, when it can be identified, is generally considered to be the most reliable.
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Rearrangement proof of the Pythagorean theorem.(The area of the white space remains constant throughout the translation rearrangement of the triangles. At all moments in time, the area is always c2. And likewise, at all moments in time, the area is always a2 + b2.)
In one rearrangement proof, two squares are used whose sides have a measure of and which contain four right triangles whose sides are a, b and c, with the hypotenuse being c. In the square on the right side, the triangles are placed such that the corners of the square correspond to the corners of the right angle in the triangles, forming a square in the center whose sides are length c. Each outer square has an area of (a + b)2 as well as 2ab + c2, with 2ab representing the total area of the four triangles. Within the big square on the left side, the four triangles are moved to form two similar rectangles with sides of length a and b. These rectangles in their new position have now delineated two new squares, one having side length a is formed in the bottom-left corner, and another square of side length b formed in the top-right corner. In this new position, this left side now has a square of area (a + b)2 as well as 2ab + a2 + b2. Since both squares have the area of (a + b)2 it follows that the other measure of the square area also equal each other such that 2ab + c2 = 2ab + a2 + b2. With the area of the four triangles removed from both side of the equation what remains is a2 + b2 = c2.
and which contain four right triangles whose sides are Archimedes Plutonium
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Part 1: Prehistory Logicians
1) Neanderthals making fire with flint and iron pyrite
Part 2: Ancient Logicians
2) Thales of Miletus (626 - 548 BC) -- static electricity and magnetism
3) Pythagoras of Samos (570-495 BC) -- deductive reasoning and the link between numbers and geometry in A^2 +B^2 = C^2 for right triangles
6) Plato (428- 348 BC)-- being into becoming
7) Aristotle (384-322 BC)-- deductive syllogism
9) Aristarchus of Samos 270BC-- systematized the experimental science of Astronomy
Part 3: Medieval Logicians
10) Avicenna (980 -1037)-- scientific method
11) William of Ockham (1287-1347) -- Ockham's razor
Part 3: Modern day Logicians
12) George Boole (1815-1864) and William Jevons (1835-1882) -- logic connectors
13) Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)-- symbolic logic
14) James Maxwell (1831-1879)-- unification of electricity and magnetism
15) Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and Paul Dirac (1902-1984) --symmetry in science of the magnetic monopole existence
16) John Bell (1928-1990) --superdeterminism
17) Archimedes Plutonium (1950 - present)-- systematizes Logic by paralleling logic to mathematics
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6) Plato (428- 348 BC)-- being into becoming
7) Aristotle (384-322 BC)-- deductive syllogism
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Now I come to the history where we can say Logic as a science is borne of three famous philosophers, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.Logic is borne with these three teachers.5) Socrates (470-399 BC)-- logic argument
6) Plato (428- 348 BC)-- being into becoming
7) Aristotle (384-322 BC)-- deductive syllogism
Born
c. 470 BC
Died
399 BC (aged approx. 71)
Cause of death
Forced suicide by poisoning
Spouse(s)
Xanthippe, Myrto (disputed)
Children
Lamprocles, Menexenus, Sophroniscus
Family
Sophroniscus (father), Phaenarete(mother), Patrocles (half-brother)
Philosophical work
Era
Ancient Greek philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
School
Classical Greek philosophy
Notable students
Main interests
Notable ideas
Socrates (/ˈsɒkrətiːz/;[2] Ancient Greek: Σωκράτης, romanized: Sōkrátēs; c. 470 – 399 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher from Classical Athens, perhaps the first Western moral philosopher, and a major inspiration on his student Plato, who largely founded the tradition of Western philosophy.[3] An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no texts and is known mainly through the posthumous accounts of classical writers, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon. These accounts are written as dialogues, in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine a subject in the style of question and answer; they gave rise to the Socratic dialogue literary genre. Contradictory accounts of Socrates make a reconstruction of his philosophy nearly impossible, a situation known as the Socratic problem. Socrates was a polarizing figure in Athenian society. In 399 BC, he was accused of impiety and corrupting the youth. After a trial that lasted a day, he was sentenced to death. As related by Plato, he was put to death by administration of poison after refusing offers from allies to help him escape.
Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. They demonstrate the Socratic approach to areas of philosophy including epistemology and ethics. The Platonic Socrates lends his name to the concept of the Socratic method, and also to Socratic irony. The Socratic method of questioning, or elenchus, takes shape in dialogue using short questions and answers, epitomized by those Platonic texts in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine various aspects of an issue or an abstract meaning, usually relating to one of the virtues, and find themselves at an impasse, unable to define what they thought they understood. Socrates frequently proclaims his ignorance, saying that he is only sure that he does not know.
Socrates exerted a strong influence on philosophers in later antiquity and has continued to do so in the modern era. He was studied by medieval and Islamic scholars and played an important role in the thought of the Italian Renaissance, particularly within the humanist movement. Interest in him continued unabated, as reflected in the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. Depictions of Socrates in art, literature, and popular culture have made him a widely known figure in the Western philosophical tradition.
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6) Plato (428- 348 BC)-- being into becoming
Philosophical work
Era
Ancient Greek philosophy
Notable students
Aristotle
Main interests
Epistemology, Metaphysics
Political philosophy, Ethics
Notable works
Notable ideas
Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/ PLAY-toe; Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn; born c. 428–423 BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of Classical Athens who is most commonly considered the foundational thinker of the Western philosophical tradition.[1] An innovator of the literary dialogue and dialectic forms, Plato influenced all the major areas of theoretical philosophy and practical philosophy, and was the founder of the Platonic Academy, a philosophical school in Athenswhere Plato taught the collection of philosophical theories that would later become known as Platonism.
Plato's most famous contribution is his Theory of Forms (or Ideas), which aims to solve what is now known as the problem of universals. He was influenced by the pre-Socratic thinkers Pythagoras, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, although much of what is known about them is derived from Plato himself.
Along with his teacher Socrates, and his student Aristotle, Plato is a central figure in the history of Western philosophy. Plato's complete works are believed to have survived for over 2,400 years—unlike that of nearly all of his contemporaries.[2] Although their popularity has fluctuated, they have consistently been read and studied through the ages.[3] Through Platonism's outgrowth Neoplatonism, he also influenced Christian philosophy, and both Jewish and Islamic philosophy. In modern times, Alfred North Whitehead said: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[4]
Plato was born between 428 and 423 BC[5][6] into an aristocratic and influential Athenian family
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7) Aristotle (384-322 BC)-- deductive syllogism---quoting Wikipedia---
Born
384 BC
Died
322 BC (aged 61–62)
Education
Education
Platonic Academy
Philosophical work
Era
Ancient Greek philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
School
Peripatetic school
Notable students
Alexander the Great, Theophrastus, Aristoxenus
Main interests
Notable works
Notable ideas
Aristotelianism
Aristotle[A] (Attic Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, romanized: Aristotélēs;[B] 384–322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, and the arts. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science.
Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At around eighteen years old, he joined Plato's Academyin Athens and remained there until the age of thirty seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum, which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls.
Though Aristotle wrote many treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. His teachings and methods of inquiry have had a significant impact across the world, and remain a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Aristotle's views
--- end quoting Wikipedia---ppp
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Do not get me wrong, being fathers of Logic and biology for Aristotle is impressive.
Now I got something wrong in prior posts saying Last Cut for the Atomic Theory is subtraction. As if cutting is subraction. Is it?? Or is it more of division rather than subtraction?
As mathematician, I know subtraction relates to division, in that rapid subtraction is division.
Also, rapid addition is the same as multiplication.
So , let me do a tidy argument ending up saying that Physics is division.
So if the Atomic theory, the greatest theory in all of Science is division. And, since the Atomic theory is the greatest theory in physics, then it is the main composition of Physics. And if Atomic theory is division. Must mean that Physics, overall is division since Atomic Theory is division.
Then what is biology in terms of a mathematics operator?? Would not biology be that of multiplication? For reproduction is the main feature characteristic of life. So we have Physics as division and we have biology, Aristotle's biology as multiplication. What can we say is the operator for Logic??
My guess is that chemistry is the operator of addition for chemistry is about Atoms and atoms are ordered in terms of the number of protons from 1 for hydrogen to 94 for plutonium and onward. This is similar to mathematics Mathematical Induction of counting numbers, where starting with 0 and adding 1, a constant adding of 1 we get to 94 and onwards. And perhaps we can classify all of mathematics as addition. Also chemistry as addition.
If physics is division and chemistry is addition and biology is multiplication, what is Logic?? Is it subtraction in the vague idea that we are taking apart the argument and examining for inspection the various parts, the various ideas?
AP, King of Science
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Εὐκλείδης
Years active
fl. 300 BC
Known for
Scientific career
Fields
Mathematics (Geometry)
Euclid (/ˈjuːklɪd/; Ancient Greek: Εὐκλείδης; fl. 300BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician.[2] Considered the "father of geometry",[3] he is chiefly known for the Elementstreatise, which established the foundations of geometry that largely dominated the field until the early 19th century. His system, now referred to as Euclidean geometry, involved innovations in combination with a synthesis of theories from earlier Greek mathematicians, including Eudoxus of Cnidus, Hippocrates of Chios, Thales and Theaetetus. With Archimedes and Apollonius of Perga, Euclid is generally considered among the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, and one of the most influential in the history of mathematics.
Very little is known of Euclid's life, and most information comes from the scholars Proclus and Pappus of Alexandria many centuries later. Medieval Islamic mathematicians invented a fanciful biography, and medieval Byzantine and early Renaissancescholars mistook him for the earlier philosopher Euclid of Megara. It is now generally accepted that he spent his career in Alexandria and lived around 300 BC, after Plato's students and before Archimedes. There is some speculation that Euclid studied at the Platonic Academy and later taught at the Musaeum; he is regarded as bridging the earlier Platonic tradition in Athens with the later tradition of Alexandria.
In the Elements, Euclid deduced the theorems from a small set of axioms. He also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and mathematical rigour. In addition to the Elements, Euclid wrote a central early text in the optics field, Optics, and lesser-known works including Data and Phaenomena. Euclid's authorship of On Divisions of Figures and Catoptrics has been questioned. He is thought to have written many lost works.
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0) domain structure as Atomic Theory-- Periodic Table of Chemical Elements
1) B and E primal unit structures Magnetic Field B = kg*m^2 /second and Electric field E = 1/(Ampere*second)
2) V = A*B*E New Ohm's structure, structure of electricity
3) V' = (A*B*E)' Capacitor-Transformer structure
4) (V/A*E)' = B' Ampere-Maxwell structure
5) (V/(B*E))' = A' Faraday structure
6) (V/(A*B))' = E' the new structure of Coulomb force with EM gravity force and DeBroglie pilot wave
V= voltage, A = ampere current, B = magnetic field, E = electric field.
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Let me do some Systematization on all Sciences myself, here in 2026.Systematization of Physics------------------------------------------A ___theory___ is a collection of Laws of Physics.A ___law___ of physics is a collection of experiments implying a universal truth called a ___law___.A ___experiment____ of physics is a testing of what is true.Systematization of Math, both Numbers and Geometry---------------------------------------------------------------Both numbers and geometry follow the same pattern so I outline only one.A _____ math subject_____ is a collection of Axioms (some prefer to call them postulates).A ____axiom____ of math is similar to a Law of physics. An axiom is accepted as common sense and is not required to have a argument in favor of it.
A ___argument___ of math is like the experiment of physics, where the argument uses axioms and ends up in a conclusion for the argument. Math professors like to call the argument as "proof". The conclusion is given a fancy name of "theorem" which in physics would be called the summmary of a experiment.
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Born
c. 310 BC
Died
c. 230 BC
Occupations
Aristarchus of Samos (/ˌærɪˈstɑːrkəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἀρίσταρχος ὁ Σάμιος, Aristarkhos ho Samios; c. 310 – c. 230 BC) was an ancient Greek astronomerand mathematician who presented the first known heliocentric model that placed the Sun at the center of the universe, with the Earth revolving around the Sun once a year and rotating about its axis once a day. He also supported the theory of Anaxagoras that the Sun was just another star.[2]
Born in Samos in approximately 310 BC, Aristarchus likely moved to Alexandria and became a student of Strato of Lampsacus, who later became the head of the Peripatetic school in Greece. According to Ptolemy, Aristarchus observed the summer solstice of 280 BC.[3]Vitruvius writes that Aristarchus built two different sundials: one a flat disc; and one hemispherical.[4]Aristarchus estimated the sizes of the Sun and Moon as compared to Earth, and the distances from the Earth to the Sun and to the Moon. His estimate that the Sun was 7 times larger than Earth (it's actually 109 times, in diameter) brought about the further insight that the Sun's greater size made it the most natural central point of the universe, as opposed to Earth.
Aristarchus was influenced by the concept presented by Philolaus of Croton (c. 470 – 385 BC) of a fire at the center of the universe (i.e. by contemporary understanding, at the center of the Earth). Aristarchus recast this "central fire" as the Sun, and he arranged the other planets in their correct order of distance around the Sun.[5]
Like Anaxagoras before him, Aristarchus suspected that the stars were just other bodies like the Sun, albeit farther away from Earth. His astronomical ideas were often rejected in favor of the geocentrictheories of Aristotle and Ptolemy. Nicolaus Copernicus knew that Aristarchus had a 'moving Earth' theory, although it is unlikely that Copernicus was aware that it was a heliocentric theory.[7][8]
The original text has been lost, but a reference in a book by Archimedes, entitled The Sand Reckoner (Archimedis Syracusani Arenarius & Dimensio Circuli), describes a work in which Aristarchus advanced the heliocentric model as an alternative hypothesis to geocentrism:
Aristarchus proposed that the fixed stars were extremely distant, and because ancient cosmology placed them all on a single celestial sphere, the modern concept of stellar parallax did not apply to his model. He placed the stars at a great distance so that their apparent positions relative to each other would remain constant throughout Earth's motion. Aristarchus reconciled this issue by postulating that the stars were other suns that are very far away,[2] far enough that the parallax was not observable. This implied a universe much larger than had been believed.
It is a common misconception that the heliocentric view was considered sacrilegious by the contemporaries of Aristarchus.[10] Lucio Russo traces this to Gilles Ménage's printing of a passage from Plutarch's On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon, in which Aristarchus jokes with Cleanthes, who is head of the Stoics, a sun worshipper, and opposed to heliocentrism.[10] In the manuscript of Plutarch's text, Aristarchus says Cleanthes should be charged with impiety.[10]Ménage's version, published shortly after the trials of Galileo and Giordano Bruno, transposes an accusative and nominative so that it is Aristarchus who is purported to be impious.[10] The resulting misconception of an isolated and persecuted Aristarchus is still promulgated.[10][11]
According to Plutarch, while Aristarchus postulated heliocentrism only as a hypothesis, Seleucus of Seleucia, a Hellenistic astronomer who lived a century after Aristarchus, maintained it as a definite opinion and gave a demonstration of it,[12] but no full record of the demonstration has been found. In his Naturalis Historia, Pliny the Elder later wondered whether errors in the predictions about the heavens could be attributed to a displacement of the Earth from its central position.[13] Pliny[14] and Seneca[15] referred to the retrograde motion of some planets as an apparent (unreal) phenomenon, which is an implication of heliocentrism rather than geocentrism. Still, no stellar parallax was observed, and Plato, Aristotle, and Ptolemy preferred the geocentric model that was believed throughout the Middle Ages.
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Ibn Sina
.jpg)
Born
c. 980
Died
22 June 1037 (aged 56–57)[1]
Monuments
Avicenna Mausoleum
Other names
Hujjat al-Haq (حجة الحق)
al-Sheikh al-Ra'is (الشيخ الرئيس)
Bu Alī Sīnā (بو علی سینا)
Philosophical work
Era
Islamic Golden Age
Region
Middle Eastern philosophy
School
Aristotelianism, Avicennism
Main interests
Notable works
_CIPB2067.jpg)
Part of a series on
Avicenna
(Ibn Sīnā)
Works
Thoughts
Pupils
Monuments
Ibn Sina[a] (c. 980 – 22 June 1037), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (/ˌævɪˈsɛnə, ˌɑːv-/ A(H)V-ih-SEN-ə), was a preeminent philosopher and physician of the Muslim world.[2][3] He was a seminal figure of the Islamic Golden Age, serving in the courts of various Iranian rulers,[4] and was influential to medieval European medical and Scholastic thought.[5]
Often described as the father of early modern medicine,[6][7][8] Avicenna's most famous works are The Book of Healing, a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia[9][10][11] that became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities[12] and remained in use as late as 1650.[13]
Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, and works of poetry.[14] His philosophy was of the Peripatetic school derived from Aristotelianism,[15] of which he is considered among the greatest proponents within the Muslim world.[5]
Avicenna wrote most of his philosophical and scientific works in Arabic but also wrote several key works in Persian; his poetry was written in both languages. Of the 450 works he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.[15]
In the Al-Burhan (On Demonstration) section of The Book of Healing, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discussed Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty". Avicenna then added two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he developed a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."[92]
An early formal system of temporal logic was studied by Avicenna.[93] Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication.[94] Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī and became the dominant system of Islamic logic until modern times.[95][96] Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus[97] and William of Ockham.[98][99] Avicenna endorsed the law of non-contradiction proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, "Anyone who denies the law of non-contradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned."[100]
Archimedes Plutonium
New Logic OR (exclusive)
p q p or q
____________
T T F
T dT T
dT T T
F F F
Where the dT represents partial true value.
p q p or q
____________
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
Archimedes Plutonium
11) William of Ockham (1287-1347) -- Ockham's razorOckham was under-appreciated as a Logician, yet he likely contributed one of the most greatest Logical principles.Under-appreciated until AP elevates his Occam's razor to the level of being a principle.
Born
c. 1287[4]
Died
9/10 April 1347[5]
Education
Education
Greyfriars, London[7]
Alma mater
University of Oxford[8][9]
Philosophical work
Era
Medieval philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
School
Main interests
Notable works
Sum of Logic
Notable ideas
William of Ockham or Occam OFM (/ˈɒkəm/ OK-əm; Latin: Gulielmus Occamus;[11][12] c. 1287 – 9/10 April 1347) was an English Franciscan friar, scholastic philosopher, apologist, and theologian, who was born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey.[13] He is considered to be one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of the 14th century. He is widely known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics and theology. Ockham is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration corresponding to the commonly ascribed date of his death on 10 April.[14]
In scholasticism, William of Ockham advocated reform in both method and content, the aim of which was simplification. Ockham incorporated much of the work of some previous theologians, especially Duns Scotus. From Duns Scotus, Ockham derived his view of divine omnipotence, his view of grace and justification, much of his epistemology and ethical convictions.[25] However, he also reacted to and against Scotus in the areas of predestination, penance, his understanding of universals, his formal distinction ex parte rei (that is, "as applied to created things"), and his view of parsimony which became known as Occam's razor.
One important contribution that he made to modern science and modern intellectual culture was efficient reasoning with the principle of parsimony in explanation and theory building that came to be known as Occam's razor. This maxim, as interpreted by Bertrand Russell,[30] states that if one can explain a phenomenon without assuming this or that hypothetical entity, there is no ground for assuming it, i.e. that one should always opt for an explanation in terms of the fewest possible causes, factors, or variables. He turned this into a concern for ontological parsimony; the principle says that one should not multiply entities beyond necessity—Entia non sunt multiplicanda sine necessitate—although this well-known formulation of the principle is not to be found in any of Ockham's extant writings.[31] He formulates it as: "For nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is self-evident
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Part 4: Modern day Logicians
12) George Boole (1815-1864) and William Jevons (1835-1882) -- logic connectors
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Ockham was under-appreciated as a Logician, yet he likely contributed one of the most greatest Logical principles.
Under-appreciated until AP elevates his Occam's razor to the level of being a principle.
Part 4: Modern day Logicians
12) George Boole (1815-1864) and William Jevons (1835-1882) -- logic connectors
--AP writes: Rather sad that Logic has always taken a back seat as far as the sciences are concerned compared to math. Probably because few can think clear and straight in the first place.AP
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Part 4: Modern day Logicians
12) George Boole (1815-1864) and William Jevons (1835-1882) -- logic connectorsAP writes: Rather sad that Logic has always taken a back seat as far as the sciences are concerned compared to math. Probably because few can think clear and straight in the first place.
The Illustrated London News, 21 January 1865
Born
2 November 1815
Died
8 December 1864 (aged 49)
Known for
Spouse
Awards
- Royal Medal (1844)
- Keith Medal (1855–1857)
- FRS (1857)
Education
Education
Bainbridge's Commercial Academy[1]
Philosophical work
Era
19th-century philosophy
Discipline
Mathematics
Region
Western philosophy
School
British algebraic logic[3]
Institutions
- Lincoln Mechanics' Institute[2]
- Free School Lane, Lincoln
- Queen's University, Cork
Main interests
Mathematics, logic, philosophy of mathematics
George Boole (/buːl/ BOOL; 2 November 1815 – 8 December 1864) was an English autodidact, mathematician, philosopher and logician who served as the first professor of mathematics at Queen's College, Cork in Ireland. He worked in the fields of differential equations and algebraic logic, and is best known as the author of The Laws of Thought (1854), which contains Boolean algebra. Boolean logic, essential to computer programming, is credited with helping to lay the foundations for the Information Age.[4][5][6]
Boole was the son of a shoemaker. He received a primary school education and learned Latin and modern languages through various means. At 16, he began teaching to support his family. He established his own school at 19 and later ran a boarding school in Lincoln. Boole was an active member of local societies and collaborated with fellow mathematicians. In 1849, he was appointed the first professor of mathematics at Queen's College, Cork (now University College Cork) in Ireland, where he met his future wife, Mary Everest. He continued his involvement in social causes and maintained connections with Lincoln. In 1864, Boole died due to fever-induced pleural effusion after developing pneumonia.
Boole published around 50 articles and several separate publications in his lifetime. Some of his key works include a paper on early invariant theory and "The Mathematical Analysis of Logic", which introduced symbolic logic. Boole also wrote two systematic treatises: "Treatise on Differential Equations" and "Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences". He contributed to the theory of linear differential equations and the study of the sum of residues of a rational function. In 1847, Boole developed Boolean algebra, a fundamental concept in binary logic, which laid the groundwork for the algebra of logic tradition and forms the foundation of digital circuit design and modern computer science. Boole also attempted to discover a general method in probabilities, focusing on determining the consequent probability of events logically connected to given probabilities.
Boole's work was expanded upon by various scholars, such as Charles Sanders Peirce and William Stanley Jevons. Boole's ideas later gained practical applications when Claude Shannon and Victor Shestakov employed Boolean algebra to optimize the design of electromechanical relay systems, leading to the development of modern electronic digital computers. His contributions to mathematics earned him various honours, including the Royal Society's first gold prize for mathematics, the Keith Medal, and honorary degrees from the Universities of Dublin and Oxford. University College Cork celebrated the 200th anniversary of Boole's birth in 2015, highlighting his significant impact on the digital age.
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William Stanley Jevons
FRS
Born 1 September 1835
Liverpool, Lancashire, England
Died 13 August 1882 (aged 46)
Bexhill-on-Sea, Sussex, England
Resting place Hampstead Cemetery, London
Alma mater University College London
Known for Marginal utility theory
Jevons paradox
Children Herbert Stanley Jevons
Scientific career
Fields Economics
Logic
Institutions University College London (1876–1880)
Owens College (now University of Manchester) (1863–1875)
Academic advisors Augustus De Morgan
Signature
Notes
While not a formal advisor (Jevons lived before the introduction of the PhD to Britain), De Morgan was his most influential professor.[1]
William Stanley Jevons FRS (/ˈdʒɛvənz/;[2] 1 September 1835 – 13 August 1882) was an English economist and logician.
Irving Fisher described Jevons's book The Theory of Political Economy (1871) as the start of the mathematical method in economics.[3] It made the case that economics, as a science concerned with quantities, is necessarily mathematical.[4] In so doing, it expounded upon the "final" (marginal) utility theory of value. Jevons' work, along with similar discoveries made by Carl Menger in Vienna (1871) and by Léon Walras in Switzerland (1874), marked the opening of a new period in the history of economic thought. Jevons's contribution to the marginal revolution in economics in the late 19th century established his reputation as a leading political economist and logician of the time.
Jevons broke off his studies of the natural sciences in London in 1854 to work as an assayer in Sydney, where he acquired an interest in political economy. Returning to the UK in 1859, he issued a "Notice of a General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy" in 1862, outlining the marginal utility theory of value, and published A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold in 1863. For Jevons, the utility or value to a consumer of an additional unit of a product is inversely related to the number of units of that product he already owns, at least beyond some critical quantity.
Jevons received public recognition for his work on The Coal Question (1865), in which he called attention to the gradual exhaustion of Britain's coal supplies and also put forth the view that increases in energy production efficiency leads to more, not less, consumption.[5]: 7f, 161f This view is known today as the Jevons paradox, named after him. Due to this particular work, Jevons is regarded today as the first economist of some standing to develop an 'ecological' perspective on the economy.[6]: 295f [7]: 147 [5]: 2
The most important of his works on logic and scientific methods is his Principles of Science (1874),[8] as well as The Theory of Political Economy (1871) and The State in Relation to Labour (1882). Among his inventions was the logic piano, a mechanical computer.
Archimedes Plutonium
Notes
William Stanley Jevons FRS (/ˈdʒɛvənz/;[2] 1 September 1835 – 13 August 1882) was an English economist and logician.
Irving Fisher described Jevons's book The Theory of Political Economy (1871) as the start of the mathematical method in economics.[3] It made the case that economics, as a science concerned with quantities, is necessarily mathematical.[4] In so doing, it expounded upon the "final" (marginal) utility theory of value. Jevons' work, along with similar discoveries made by Carl Menger in Vienna (1871) and by Léon Walras in Switzerland (1874), marked the opening of a new period in the history of economic thought. Jevons's contribution to the marginal revolution in economics in the late 19th century established his reputation as a leading political economist and logician of the time.
Jevons broke off his studies of the natural sciences in London in 1854 to work as an assayer in Sydney, where he acquired an interest in political economy. Returning to the UK in 1859, he issued a "Notice of a General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy" in 1862, outlining the marginal utility theory of value, and published A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold in 1863. For Jevons, the utility or value to a consumer of an additional unit of a product is inversely related to the number of units of that product he already owns, at least beyond some critical quantity.
Jevons received public recognition for his work on The Coal Question (1865), in which he called attention to the gradual exhaustion of Britain's coal supplies and also put forth the view that increases in energy production efficiency leads to more, not less, consumption.[5]: 7f, 161f This view is known today as the Jevons paradox, named after him. Due to this particular work, Jevons is regarded today as the first economist of some standing to develop an 'ecological' perspective on the economy.[6]: 295f [7]: 147 [5]: 2
The most important of his works on logic and scientific methods is his Principles of Science (1874),[8]as well as The Theory of Political Economy (1871) and The State in Relation to Labour (1882). Among his inventions was the logic piano, a mechanical computer.
Archimedes Plutonium
Boole and Jevons gives us the logic of truth tables and statements. But Frege gives us logic in more symbolic format. Arithmetic of mathematics is mostly about handling actual numbers like (3 x 6) + 18 while algebra of mathematics is more about symbols replacing numbers.
13) Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)-- symbolic logic
Born
8 November 1848
Died
26 July 1925 (aged 76)
Education
Education
University of Göttingen (PhD, 1873)
University of Jena (Dr. phil. hab., 1874)
Theses
Doctoral advisor
Ernst Christian Julius Schering(PhD advisor)
Other advisors
Alfred Clebsch
Wilhelm Eduard Weber
Eduard Riecke
Hermann Lotze
Philosophical work
Era
19th-/20th-century philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
School
Analytic philosophy
Linguistic turn
Logical realism
Modern Platonism[1]
Logicism
Transcendental idealism[2][3](before 1891)
Metaphysical realism[3] (after 1891)
Foundationalism[4]
Indirect realism[5]
Redundancy theory of truth[6]
Institutions
University of Jena
Notable students
Rudolf Carnap
Main interests
Philosophy of mathematics, mathematical logic, philosophy of language
Notable works
Begriffsschrift (1879)
The Foundations of Arithmetic(1884)
Basic Laws of Arithmetic (1893–1903)
Notable ideas
- Analytic philosophy
- Ancestral relation
- Anti-psychologism
- Basic law V
- Concept and object
- Context principle
- Currying
- Descriptivist theory of names
- Frege's principle
- Frege's puzzles
- Frege's theorem
- Fregean analysis
- Frege–Church ontology
- Frege–Geach problem
- Frege–Russell logic
- Function and Concept
- Law of trichotomy
- Logicism
- Hume's principle
- Mediated reference theory
- Naive set theory
- Named set theory
- Predicate calculus
- Propositional calculus
- Principle of compositionality
- Quantification theory
- Redundancy theory of truth
- Round square copula
- Second-order logic
- Sense and reference
- Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers
- Sortal
- Third realm
Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (/ˈfreɪɡə/;[7] German:[ˈɡɔtloːp ˈfreːɡə]; 8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925) was a German philosopher, logician, and mathematician. He was a mathematics professor at the University of Jena, and is understood by many to be the father of analytic philosophy, concentrating on the philosophy of language, logic, and mathematics. Though he was largely ignored during his lifetime, Giuseppe Peano(1858–1932), Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), and, to some extent, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) introduced his work to later generations of philosophers. Frege is widely considered to be one of the greatest logicians since Aristotle, and one of the most profound philosophers of mathematics ever.[8]
His contributions include the development of modern logic in the Begriffsschrift and work in the foundations of mathematics. His book the Foundations of Arithmeticis the seminal text of the logicist project, and is cited by Michael Dummett as where to pinpoint the linguistic turn. His philosophical papers "On Sense and Reference" and "The Thought" are also widely cited. The former argues for two different types of meaningand descriptivism. In Foundations and "The Thought", Frege argues for Platonism against psychologism or formalism, concerning numbers and propositionsrespectively.
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14) James Maxwell (1831-1879)-- unification of electricity and magnetism
Born
13 June 1831
Died
5 November 1879 (aged 48)
Resting place
Parton, Dumfries and Galloway
55.006693°N 4.039210°WAlma mater
Known for
Spouse
Awards
- Smith's Prize (1854)
- Adams Prize (1857)
- Rumford Medal (1860)
- FRS (1861)
- Bakerian Medal (1866)
- Keith Medal (1869–1871)
Scientific career
Fields
Physics
Mathematics
Institutions
Academic advisors
William Hopkins
Notable students
1st Cavendish Professor of Physics
In office
1871–1879
Succeeded by
Lord Rayleigh
Signature
James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish physicist and mathematician[1] who was responsible for the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, which was the first theory to describe electricity, magnetism and light as different manifestations of the same phenomenon. Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism achieved the second great unification in physics,[2] where the first one had been realised by Isaac Newton. Maxwell was also key in the creation of statistical mechanics.
Maxwell graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1854, where he earned distinction in mathematics and the Smith’s Prize. He remained at Cambridge briefly, publishing early mathematical work and investigations into optics, particularly the principles of colour combination and colour-blindness. He later held the Chair of Natural Philosophy at Marischal College, where he studied the rings of Saturn and correctly proposed that they were composed of numerous small particles,[3] work that earned him the Adams Prize in 1859. During this time he married Katherine Mary Dewar, who assisted him in his laboratory work. From 1860 to 1865, he served as the Professor of Natural Philosophy at King’s College London, where he developed his theory of electromagnetic fields. His publication of "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" in 1865 demonstrated that electric and magnetic fieldstravel through space as waves moving at the speed of light, proposing that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.[4] His unification of light and electrical phenomena led to his prediction of the existence of radio waves.
Maxwell was the first to derive the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, a statistical means of describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases, which he worked on sporadically throughout his career.[5] He presented the first durable colour photograph in 1861, and showed that any colour can be produced with a mixture of any three primary colours, those being red, green, and blue, the basis for colour television.[6] He worked on analysing the rigidity of rod-and-joint frameworks (trusses) like those in many bridges. He devised modern dimensional analysis and helped to establish the CGS system of measurement. He was the first to understand chaos, and the first to emphasize the butterfly effect. His 1863 paper On Governors serves as an important foundation for control theory and cybernetics, and was also the earliest mathematical analysis on control systems.[7][8] In 1867, he proposed the thought experiment known as Maxwell's demon, which challenges how information affects entropy in thermodynamics. In his seminal 1867 paper On the Dynamical Theory of Gases he introduced the Maxwell model for describing the behavior of a viscoelastic material and originated the Maxwell-Cattaneo equation for describing the transport of heat in a medium.
In 1871, Maxwell returned to Cambridge as the first Cavendish Professor of Physics, overseeing the construction of the Cavendish Laboratory. As a result of his work he is regarded as a founder of the modern field of electrical engineering.[6] His discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundations for such fields as relativity, also being the one to introduce the term into physics,[9] and quantum mechanics.[10][11]
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15) Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and Paul Dirac (1902-1984) --symmetry in science of the magnetic monopole existence
Born
15 May 1859
Died
19 April 1906 (aged 46)
Resting place
Panthéon, Paris (since 1995)
Alma mater
University of Paris (DSc)
Known for
- Discovery of polonium and radium (with Marie Curie)
- Discovery of piezoelectricity
- Curie's law
- Curie's principle
Spouse
Children
Family
Curie
Awards
- Davy Medal (1903)
- Nobel Prize in Physics (1903)
- Matteucci Medal (1904)
- Elliott Cresson Medal (1909)
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
- University of Paris (1878–1882, 1895–1906)
- ESPCI Paris (1882–1895)
Thesis
Propriétés magnétiques des corps à diverses températures (1895)
Doctoral advisor
Gabriel Lippmann[1]
Notable students
Signature
Pierre Curie[a] (15 May 1859 – 19 April 1906) was a French physicist and chemist, and a pioneer in crystallography and magnetism. He shared one half of the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with his wife, Marie Curie, for their work on radioactivity.[3] With their win, the Curies became the first married couple to win a Nobel Prize, launching the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes.
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Born
8 August 1902
Died
20 October 1984 (aged 82)
Citizenship
- United Kingdom
- Switzerland (until 1919)
Education
Alma mater
Known for
Spouse
Children
4 in total (2 stepchildren, including Gabriel)
Relatives
Eugene Wigner (brother-in-law)
Awards
- Nobel Prize in Physics (1933)
- Royal Medal (1939)
- Copley Medal (1952)
- Max Planck Medal (1952)
- J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize (1969)
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
- University of Cambridge
- Florida State University
Thesis
Quantum Mechanics (1926)
Doctoral advisor
Ralph Fowler
Doctoral students
- C. J. Eliezer (1946)[1]
- Harish-Chandra (1947)[1]
- Richard J. Eden (1951)[1]
- Behram Kurşunoğlu (1952)[2]
- Dennis Sciama (1953)[1]
- John Polkinghorne (1955)
Other notable students
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (/dɪˈræk/ dih-RAK;[3] 8 August 1902 – 20 October 1984) was a British theoretical physicist who is considered to be one of the founders of quantum mechanics.[4][5] Dirac laid the foundations for both quantum electrodynamics and quantum field theory, coining the former term.[6][7][8][9] He was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge from 1932 to 1969, and a professor of physics at Florida State University from 1970 to 1984. Dirac shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in Physicswith Erwin Schrödinger "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory."[10]
Dirac graduated from the University of Bristol with a First Class HonoursBachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1921, and a first class honours Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics in 1923.[11] Dirac then graduated from St John's College, Cambridge, with a Ph.D. in physics in 1926, writing the first ever thesis on quantum mechanics.[12]
He formulated the Dirac equation, one of the most important results in physics, in 1928.[7] It connected special relativity and quantum mechanics and predicted the existence of antimatter.[13] He wrote a famous paper in 1931,[14]which further predicted the existence of antimatter.[15][16][13] Dirac also contributed greatly to the reconciliation of general relativity with quantum mechanics. He contributed to Fermi–Dirac statistics, which describes the behaviour of fermions, particles with half-integer spin. His 1930 monograph, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, is one of the most influential texts on the subject.[17] He and Schrödinger tied for eighth in a Physics World poll of the greatest physicists of all time.[18]
In 1987, Abdus Salam declared that "Dirac was undoubtedly one of the greatest physicists of this or any century ... No man except Einstein has had such a decisive influence, in so short a time, on the course of physics in this century."[19] In 1995, Stephen Hawking stated that "Dirac has done more than anyone this century, with the exception of Einstein, to advance physics and change our picture of the universe"[20] while Stanley Deser remarked that "We all stand on Dirac's shoulders."[21]
Dirac was born on 8 August 1902 at his parents' home in Bristol, England,[22]and grew up in the Bishopston area of the city.[23][24] His father, Charles Adrien Ladislas Dirac, was an immigrant from Saint-Maurice, Switzerland, of French descent,[25] who worked in Bristol as a French teacher. His mother, Florence Hannah Holten, was born to a Cornish Methodist family in Liskeard, Cornwall.[26][27] She was named after Florence Nightingale by her father, a ship's captain, who had met Nightingale while he was a soldier during the Crimean War.[28] His mother moved to Bristol as a young woman, where she worked as a librarian at the Bristol Central Library; despite this she still considered her identity to be Cornish rather than English.[29] Paul had a younger sister, Béatrice Isabelle Marguerite, known as Betty, and an older brother, Reginald Charles Félix, known as Felix,[30][31] who died by suicide in March 1925.[32] Dirac later recalled: "My parents were terribly distressed. I didn't know they cared so much ... I never knew that parents were supposed to care for their children, but from then on I knew."[33]
Charles and the children were officially Swiss nationals until they became naturalised on 22 October 1919.[34] Dirac's father was strict and authoritarian, although he disapproved of corporal punishment.[35] Dirac had a strained relationship with his father, so much so that after his father's death, Dirac wrote, "I feel much freer now, and I am my own man." Charles forced his children to speak to him only in French so that they might learn the language. When Dirac found that he could not express what he wanted to say in French, he chose to remain silent.[36][37]
Archimedes Plutonium
Archimedes Plutonium
Archimedes Plutonium
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Born
28 July 1928
Died
1 October 1990 (aged 62)
Alma mater
Queen's University of Belfast(BSc)
University of Birmingham(PhD)
Known for
Bell's theorem
Bell state
Bell's spaceship paradox
Bell–Kochen–Specker theorem
Chiral anomaly
CPT symmetry
Superdeterminism
Quantum entanglement
Awards
Heineman Prize (1989)
Hughes Medal (1989)
Paul Dirac Medal and Prize(1988)
Scientific career
Institutions
Atomic Energy Research Establishment
CERN, Stanford University
Thesis
Contribution to field theory (i. Time reversal in field theory, ii. Some functional methods in field theory.) (1956)
Doctoral advisor
Rudolph E. Peierls
Other academic advisors
Paul Taunton Matthews[1]: 137
John Stewart Bell FRS[2] (28 July 1928 – 1 October 1990)[3] was a physicistfrom Northern Ireland and the originator of Bell's theorem, an important theorem in quantum physics regarding hidden-variable theories.[4][5][6][7][8]
In 2022, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Alain Aspect, John Clauser, and Anton Zeilinger for work on Bell inequalities and the experimental validation of Bell's theorem.[9]
Bell was born in Belfast, Northern Ireland to a working class family. Due to financial hardship, neither parent and none of his three older siblings completed high school, typically dropping out of school by age 14 to work.[10]When he was 11 years old, he decided to be a scientist, and encouraged by his mother, at 16 he graduated from Belfast Technical High School.[10] Then in an exceptionally rare occurrence for someone of his background, Bell attended the Queen's University of Belfast, where, in 1948, he obtained a bachelor's degree in experimental physics and, a year later, a bachelor's degree in mathematical physics.[10] He went on to complete a PhD in physics at the University of Birmingham in 1956, specialising in nuclear physics and quantum field theory. In 1954, he married Mary Ross, also a physicist, whom he had met while working on accelerator physics at Malvern, UK.[11]: 139 Bell became a vegetarian in his teen years.[12] According to his wife, Bell was an atheist.[13]
Bell's career began with the UK Atomic Energy Research Establishment, near Harwell, Oxfordshire, known as AERE or Harwell Laboratory. In 1960, he moved to work for the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN, Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire), in Geneva, Switzerland.[14]There he worked almost exclusively on theoretical particle physics and on accelerator design, but found time to pursue a major avocation, investigating the foundations of quantum theory. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1987.[15] Also of significance during his career, Bell, together with John Bradbury Sykes, M. J. Kearsley, and W. H. Reid, translated several volumes of the ten-volume Course of Theoretical Physics of Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, making these works available to an English-speaking audience in translation, all of which remain in print.
Bell was a proponent of pilot wave theory.[16] In 1987, inspired by Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber theory, he also advocated collapse theories.[17] He said about the interpretation of quantum mechanics: "Well, you see, I don't really know. For me it's not something where I have a solution to sell!"[18]
Archimedes Plutonium
Religion versus LogicPrevious chapter was William of Ockham11) William of Ockham (1287-1347) -- Ockham's razor
Ockham was under-appreciated as a Logician, yet he likely contributed one of the most greatest Logical principles.
Under-appreciated until AP elevates his Occam's razor to the level of being a principle.In terms of history I move from the 14th century to the 19th century of somewhat 500 years elapsed time.As I write the history of Logic, I can easily run amok if I did not talk about other pathways of thought going on, other than the logic way of thinking.Throughout human history with civilization the mode and path of thinking was mostly Religion this that and whatever. We see it in Ancient Greek times where Science begins but in a civilization where I would say only 1% were aware of science mode of thinking and the rest--- 99% were swimming in religion way of thinking.I wrote a book defining religion as this.Religion definition----------------------------We seek truth and wisdom via the scientific method to arrive at science explanations. Whenever we do not have a science explanation, we can resort to religion. If science is absent, only then can religion enter.So why has Logic as a science taken back seat throughout most of human history as asked by me 4:54:08PM???It is mostly because religion has occupied that duty and chore for much of human history, and only by the 19th century was Religion going to wholescale give up its vast control of how humans think and act. We see clearly this surrender of control of thinking by the birth of the USA where the Founding Fathers knew their new nation was not going to last long or survive, unless they Separated out completely Religion from politics. But still, even by 2024, religion has vast control on who gets elected.Science and Logic definition--------------------------------------------Science and Logic are sciences obeying the Scientific Method and creating through engineering new technology, while Religion is mostly dogma. This causes often and seemingly endless conflict. Science always wins but often pays a dear price in securing the truth.The reason that we can look at the 19th century as the Rise of Science and the slow decline of religion is that we have the first greatest engineering technology from science-- the steam engine.People begin to see the steam engine and science as Truth, and then see religion more as made up fantasy. See religion as only that which science cannot explain.In any environment where Religion dominates, clear and straight thinking of Logic is suppressed and repressed.In Ancient Greek times where science is borne, I estimate only 1% of the total population could think logically. By the time of William of Ockham, only 2% of total human population could think logically. By the time of Boole and Jevons with the Steam Engine revolution under way, I would say 10% of total human population could think Logically. By the time humanity took flight with airplanes, I would say of all humans only 20% could think logically. By the time humanity landed on the Moon and is traveling in Space and created the radioactive electric power station, I would say only 30% of humanity could think logically.
When will humanity have the majority of logical thinkers? I would say the 50% of humans who think logically, not religion, will be reached when humanity learns the Sun and stars shine from Faraday law and that we have to make Europa our new home or go extinct and perish into oblivion. For religion simply does not provide truth of the world we live in. Religion is only good when there is no science. Religion has encumbered Logical thought all the way back to Ancient Greek times, and continues to make bad decisions in present.