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Avice Michonski
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of treatment with an intravaginal progesterone-releasing device (CIDR) and estradiol benzoate (EB) on follicular dynamics in Bos indicus (n=23), Bos taurus (n=25), and cross-bred (n=23) heifers. To assess the influence of reduced serum progesterone concentrations during 8 days of treatment with a progesterone-releasing device on follicular dynamics, half of the heifers received PGF at CIDR insertion (Day 0; 3 x 2 factorial design). Mean (+/-S.E.M.) serum progesterone concentrations during CIDR treatment varied (P
Sand tigers are commonly found inshore ranging in depths from 6 to 626 feet (1.8 to 191 m). The sand tiger is found in a variety of habitats including the surf zone, shallow bays, coral and rocky reefs and deeper areas around the outer continental shelves. C. taurus is often found on the bottom but can also be seen at all levels in the water column. It is migratory within its region, moving poleward during the summer while making equatorial movements during the fall and winter months (Compagno et al. 2005).
The sand tiger shark was originally named Carcharias taurus by Rafinesque in 1810. Since then it has also been referred to literature as Odontaspis taurus Rafinesque 1810, Eugomphodus taurus Rafinesque 1810, Odontaspis americanus Mitchill 1815, Squalus americanus Mitchill 1815, Carcharias griseus Ayres 1843, Odontaspis arenarius Ogilby 1911, Carcharias arenarius Ogilby 1911, Odontaspis platensis Lahille 1928, and Carcharius platensisLahille 1928.
A member of the family Bovidae, the species Bos taurus (B. taurus) is comprised of several hundred different breeds and makes up the majority of domestic beef and dairy cattle found through out the Americas and Europe. Of these numerous breeds several of the most common, including Holsteins and Ayrshires, are found in Wisconsin. Features common to this family include: a paraxonic toe arrangement, fused metapodials (canon bone), the presence of true horns, a four chambered stomach, lack of upper incisors and canines, and an overall hypsodont tooth morphology common to grazers (Feldhammer 1999).
Due to the amount of variation present among breeds, specific morphological characteristics must be presented as approximations. An attempt was made to focus on breeds found within Wisconsin, primarily the Holstein, and the resulting data may not accurately describe all breeds of B. taurus.
According to data presented by the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food (2003), the average height at rump and length from nose to tail recorded for Holstein cattle surveyed was 58-59 in and 95-102 in respectively. Weights averaged 1500-1900 lbs, though significant variation was seen among females during the various stages of lactation. Numerous color variations exist between species, with common patterns made of black or tan and white. Color patterns are unique for each individual which allows for easy identification.
Due to the process of domestication it is difficult to describe the natural behavior and ecology of B. taurus. Individuals occurring in Wisconsin are exclusively a domestic species and thus behavior and ecology must be described in these terms.
A gregarious animal, B. taurus occurs in herds of with an average size of 24-52 individuals (Jesse 2002). In wild settings, herding behavior provided such benefits as increased safety from predators and chances for mating, however in modern herds it is primarily a function of a domestication and human manipulation. Herds are generally comprised of females and juveniles, with adult males being separated and used primarily for stud purposes. This system produces a form of unnatural polygyny where access to the available females is restricted, with only certain males being allowed to breed with multiple females. This planned manipulation eliminates competition and fighting between males and significantly alters the natural breeding behavior of B. taurus in an attempt to control reproduction and improve domestic stocks.
Feeding habits could be described as bulk grazing with a focus on fresh grasses and other succulent vegetation (Feldhammer 1999). As is typical of most grazers a herd will feed in a particular area until the preferred or available food sources are depleted at which time it will move on in search of more vegetation. In a domestic setting various grazing rotation systems have been developed in an attempt to mimic nature and maintain a constant food source while preventing damage to the vegetation through over grazing. This involves continually moving the herd to various different enclosures as the vegetation regenerates in the previously grazed areas. The ecological impacts of these practices have been observed and include such things as the alteration of vegetation composition, age class, and structure as well as the indirect production of habitat for numerous other animal species (Warren 2002, Kazmaier 2001).
In addition to their ecological interactions with the environment, B. taurus is also affected by interactions with native animal species, predominantly predators. As a general rule, grazers and their young are often the focus of predators due to their abundance and tendency to come together in large herds. Also as part of the domestication process species are often breed to be placid and less wary than their wild relatives. This combination often produces a situation were the cattle become easy targets for predators which have discovered their vulnerable nature. Predation events by Gray wolves (Canis lupes) have increased in recent years as wolf populations have continued to grow. The majority of cases, approximately 17 each year, have come from the northern third of the state where a large portion of the current wolf population, approximately 355 individuals, is located (Wisconsin wolf advisory committee 2003).
Life cycle and mating behaviorMaturity Reproduction Spawning Eggs Fecundity LarvaeExhibit ovoviparity (aplacental viviparity), with embryos feeding on other ova produced by the mother (oophagy) after the yolk sac is absorbed, then cannibalize siblings (adelphophagy) (Ref. 50449). Distinct pairing with embrace (Ref. 205). Eggs leave the ovaries, and while in transit in the oviducts are fertilized and enclosed in groups of 16 to 23 in egg cases. However, at some time between fertilization and birth only two (Ref. 5578, 6586) embryos of its group prevails, possibly by devouring its rivals, and proceeds to eat fertilized eggs and smaller potential siblings in utero until birth. According to Springer (1948) (Ref. 39565), it is evident that this species sends forth into the world not only large, well-developed, and even experienced young but may send them forth with a full stomach. The yolk sac is resorbed at a small size, less than 17 cm, and the umbilical scar may be lost. Gestation period may be from 8 to 9 months long. Size at birth 100 cm (Ref. 6586).Pratt (2001) (Ref. 49562) relates Gordon's (1993) (Ref. 51113) detailed account of the mating behavior of the sand tiger sharks as follows: "mating activities began when the two male C. taurus, having become reluctant to feed, increased their swimming speed, accompanied by clasper flexion and eventual interest in their female tank mates...aggressive displays such as snapping and stalking became frequent, mostly toward species of smaller Carcharhinus in the tank. The males did not become interested in the female until she slowed, moved to the sand area and started cupping her pelvic fins. The two males then became competitive toward each other, circling and tailing, until the alpha male forced the beta male out of the sand area. The female bit the male prior to copulation. She exhibited shielding behavior for several days and then resumed cupping and flaring. The female gradually changed her swimming position and began displaying the submissive behavior. The alpha male swam in increasingly larger circles and began splaying its claspers, then approached the female and exhibited tailing and nosing. Copulation occurred as the male bit into the right flank and trailing edge of the pectoral fin of the female. The male swam side by side with the female, copulating with the right clasper for one to two minutes. After copulation, the male showed little interest in the female." In captivity, males show aggression toward other species after copulation (Ref. 51113, 49562). Females avoid patrolling males by 'shielding' with pelvics close to the substrate (Ref. 51113, 49562). However, female acceptance of future male partner is indicated by a show of 'submissive' body, 'cupping' and 'flaring' of pelvic fins (Ref. 51113, 49562).
This dataset presents the Onthophagus taurus gene set BCM_v_0.5.3, which was generated computationally. RNA-Seq data was used with additional protein homology data for a MAKER automated annotation of the Onthophagus taurus genome assembly 1.0. Further annotation method details will be available in a forthcoming publication.
The dung beetle genus Onthophagus comprises with over 2,400 extant species the most speciose genus within the animal kingdom. O. taurus itself is the most studied dung beetle and a focal taxon for studies in evolutionary ecology, evolutionary genetics, behavioral ecology, evo-devo and developmental genetics.