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The precise Mach number at which a craft can be said to be flying at hypersonic speed varies, since individual physical changes in the airflow (like molecular dissociation and ionization) occur at different speeds; these effects collectively become important around Mach 5-10. The hypersonic regime can also be alternatively defined as speeds where specific heat capacity changes with the temperature of the flow as kinetic energy of the moving object is converted into heat.[2]
While the definition of hypersonic flow can be quite vague and is generally debatable (especially due to the absence of discontinuity between supersonic and hypersonic flows), a hypersonic flow may be characterized by certain physical phenomena that can no longer be analytically discounted as in supersonic flow.[citation needed] The peculiarities in hypersonic flows are as follows:[citation needed]
A portion of the large kinetic energy associated with flow at high Mach numbers transforms into internal energy in the fluid due to viscous effects. The increase in internal energy is realized as an increase in temperature. Since the pressure gradient normal to the flow within a boundary layer is approximately zero for low to moderate hypersonic Mach numbers, the increase of temperature through the boundary layer coincides with a decrease in density. This causes the bottom of the boundary layer to expand, so that the boundary layer over the body grows thicker and can often merge with the shock wave near the body leading edge.[citation needed]
The "supersonic regime" usually refers to the set of Mach numbers for which linearised theory may be used; for example, where the (air) flow is not chemically reacting and where heat transfer between air and vehicle may be reasonably neglected in calculations. Generally, NASA defines "high" hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, and re-entry speeds as anything greater than Mach 25. Among the spacecraft operating in these regimes are returning Soyuz and Dragon space capsules; the previously-operated Space Shuttle; various reusable spacecraft in development such as SpaceX Starship and Rocket Lab Electron; and (theoretical) spaceplanes.[citation needed]
Hypersonic flows, however, require other similarity parameters. First, the analytic equations for the oblique shock angle become nearly independent of Mach number at high (>10) Mach numbers. Second, the formation of strong shocks around aerodynamic bodies means that the freestream Reynolds number is less useful as an estimate of the behavior of the boundary layer over a body (although it is still important). Finally, the increased temperature of hypersonic flow mean that real gas effects become important. Research in hypersonics is therefore often called aerothermodynamics, rather than aerodynamics.[3]
The next-generation missile, also known as the hypersonic air-launched OASuW (HALO), is intended to be carried by aircraft carrier-based fighter jets such as the Super Hornet with the capability of sinking enemy ships.
A recent example of the effect of aerodynamic heating on a hypersonic vehicle is the test of the Hypersonic Technology Vehicle 2 (HTV-2), very recently announced by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). In August 2011, this unmanned vehicle was powered by rockets to Mach 20, after which it spent about 200 seconds flying within the atmosphere before the intense aerodynamic heating resulted in the skin peeling away from the internal structure. The flight was finally aborted and was sent plunging into the Pacific Ocean.
Lockheed Martin is partnering with DARPA, the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Army, and the U.S. Navy to transition hypersonic concepts to operational reality. Discover why hypersonics are a key to battlefield supremacy and an essential element in national defense.
The Air-launched Rapid Response Weapon (ARRW) program combines critical high-speed flight technologies and accelerates the weaponization of air-to-ground hypersonic strike capabilities for the U.S. Air Force.
Over the past two years, we have launched a factory site for hypersonic production in Courtland, Alabama and enhanced our development capability at Grand Prairie, Texas to support multiple hypersonic programs.
We are working with a network of universities to establish new curricula for future hypersonics professionals, develop partnerships with professors and students, and develop professional training tools for our current employees.
B-52 Stratofortress crews from the 23rd Expeditionary Bomb Squadron, Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota and the 49th Test and Evaluation Squadron, Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, participated in hypersonic weapon familiarization training at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, Feb. 27, 2024. Hypersonics is an attribute being pursued for advanced munitions. The Department of Defense is developing hypersonic science and technology to ensure the U.S. can rapidly transition operational hypersonic systems. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Pedro Tenorio)
B-52 Stratofortress crews from the 23rd Expeditionary Bomb Squadron, Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota and the 49th Test and Evaluation Squadron, Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, participated in hypersonic weapon familiarization training at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, Feb. 27, 2024. The Department of Defense is developing hypersonic science and technology to ensure the U.S. can rapidly transition operational hypersonic systems. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Pedro Tenorio)
B-52 Stratofortress crews from the 23rd Expeditionary Bomb Squadron, Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota and the 49th Test and Evaluation Squadron, Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, participated in hypersonic weapon familiarization training at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, Feb. 27, 2024. The participating crews received expert academics and training on hypersonic fundamentals and participated in tactical discussion on hypersonic operations to increase operational readiness and prepare multiple Air Force aircraft communities for hypersonics including the Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile, Air-launched Rapid Response Weapon, and other programs under development. (U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Spencer Perkins)
B-52 Stratofortress crews from the 23rd Expeditionary Bomb Squadron, Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota and the 49th Test and Evaluation Squadron, Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, participated in hypersonic weapon familiarization training at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, Feb. 27, 2024.The Department of Defense is developing hypersonic science and technology to ensure the U.S. can rapidly transition operational hypersonic systems. (U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Spencer Perkins)
B-52 Stratofortress crews from the 23rd Expeditionary Bomb Squadron, Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota and the 49th Test and Evaluation Squadron, Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, participated in hypersonic weapon familiarization training at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, Feb. 27, 2024. The Department of Defense is developing hypersonic science and technology to ensure the U.S. can rapidly transition operational hypersonic systems. (U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Spencer Perkins)
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