Factor 5 Vitamin

[Kassim Sin]

VitaminB12, also known as cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that is derived from animal products such as red meat, dairy, and eggs. Intrinsic factor is a glycoprotein produced by parietal cells in the stomach and necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the terminal ileum. Once absorbed, vitamin B12 is used as a cofactor for enzymes that are involved in the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), fatty acids, and myelin. Vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to hematologic and neurological symptoms. Vitamin B12 is stored in excess in the liver, decreasing the likelihood of deficiency. However, in cases in which vitamin B12 cannot be absorbed, for example, due to dietary insufficiency, malabsorption, or lack of intrinsic factor, hepatic stores are depleted, and deficiency ensues. This activity describes the evaluation and management of vitamin B12 deficiency and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in improving care for affected patients.

Objectives:Explain the pathophysiology of vitamin B12 deficiency.Review the risk factors for developing a vitamin B12 deficiency.Describe the typical presentation of a patient with vitamin B12 deficiency.Explain the importance of improving care coordination amongst the interprofessional team to enhance the delivery of care for patients with vitamin B12 deficiency.Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is a water-soluble vitamin that is derived from animal products such as red meat, dairy, and eggs. Intrinsic factor is a glycoprotein that is produced by parietal cells in the stomach and is necessary for the absorption of B12 in the terminal ileum. Once absorbed, B12 is used as a cofactor for enzymes that are involved in the synthesis of DNA, fatty acids, and myelin. As a result, B12 deficiency can lead to hematologic and neurologic symptoms. B12 is stored in excess in the liver; however, in cases in which B12 cannot be absorbed for a prolonged period (e.g., dietary insufficiency, malabsorption, lack of intrinsic factor), hepatic stores are depleted, and deficiency occurs.[1][2][3]

The epidemiology of vitamin B12 deficiency varies based on the etiology. In the general population, some studies have shown that among patients with anemia, approximately 1% to 2% is due to B12 deficiency. Other studies have shown that among patients with clinical macrocytosis (defined as an MCV > 100), 18% to 20% were due to B12 deficiency. Vitamin B12 deficiency is more common in the elderly, regardless of the cause.

B12 deficiency due to pernicious anemia is more common in people of Northern European ancestry. The incidence of pernicious anemia is lower in people of African descent or people from other areas of Europe.[4][5]

In healthy patients, dietary vitamin B12 binds to a protein called R-factor, which is secreted from salivary glands. Once the complex arrives at the small intestine, B12 is cleaved from R-factor by pancreatic enzymes, allowing it to bind to a glycoprotein called intrinsic factor, which is secreted by gastric parietal cells. The newly formed complex of B12 and intrinsic factor can then bind to receptors on the ileum, which allows for absorption of B12. Once absorbed, B12 is involved in metabolic pathways important in both neurologic and hematologic functions. If B12 cannot be absorbed, regardless of the etiology, many impairments may occur.

Vitamin B12 is a cofactor for the enzyme methionine synthase, which is used in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine. As a byproduct of this reaction, methyl-THF is converted to THF, which is converted to intermediates used in the synthesis of pyrimidine bases of DNA. In B12 deficiency, homocysteine cannot be converted to methionine, and thus, methyl-THF cannot be converted to THF. As a result, homocysteine levels accumulate, and pyrimidine bases cannot be formed, slowing down DNA synthesis and causing megaloblastic anemia. The anemia then leads to symptoms such as fatigue and pallor that are commonly seen in patients with B12 deficiency. The impaired DNA synthesis causes problems for other rapidly proliferating cell lines, such as polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs). Thus, B12 deficiency characteristically results in the formation of hypersegmented neutrophils.

Vitamin B12 is also used as a cofactor for the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, which converts methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA. In patients with B12 deficiency, methylmalonic acid (MMA) levels will accumulate, as it cannot be converted to succinyl-CoA. It is hypothesized that elevated levels of MMA, along with elevated levels of homocysteine, contribute to myelin damage, accounting for the neurologic deficits, such as neuropathy and ataxia, seen in these patients. The damage to the myelin results in a condition known as subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord (SCDSC). This condition affects various parts of the spinal cord, including the dorsal columns, the lateral corticospinal tracts, and the spinocerebellar tracts, resulting in a loss of proprioception, ataxia, the development of peripheral neuropathy, and dementia.[6][7]

A thorough evaluation of vitamin B12 deficiency should include a complete history and physical with an increased emphasis on gastrointestinal (GI) and neurologic findings. B12 deficiency manifests as macrocytic anemia, and thus, the presenting symptoms often include signs of anemia, such as fatigue and pallor. Due to the increased hemolysis caused by impaired red blood cell formation, jaundice may also be a presenting symptom. Therefore, a thorough dermatologic exam may also be helpful. Other presenting complaints may include peripheral neuropathy, glossitis, diarrhea, headaches, and neuropsychiatric disturbances.

When obtaining a complete GI history, it is important to look for a past medical history of celiac disease or Crohn's disease. Any surgical history of gastrectomy or bowel resection, especially resection of the ileum, should increase suspicion for B12 deficiency. In addition, a dietary history may reveal that a patient has switched to a strict vegan diet within the last few years, which would also increase suspicion for B12 deficiency.

In more severe cases, the disease process can progress to involve the nervous system. As mentioned above, SCDSC can result from B12 deficiency, causing damage to various segments of the spinal cord. A complete neurologic exam should evaluate for dementia, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, and a loss of proprioception. A mental status exam may also be useful to evaluate any neuropsychiatric changes.

In patients with suspected B12 deficiency, initial lab tests should include a complete blood count (CBC) with a peripheral smear and serum B12 and folate levels. In cases where the diagnosis is still unclear after initial testing, other lab tests, such as MMA and homocysteine levels, are available.

In patients who are deficient in B12, the CBC would show anemia, which manifests as a decrease in both hemoglobin and hematocrit. In addition, the mean corpuscular volume (MCV), which measures the size of red blood cells, would be increased to a level greater than 100. This is consistent with a diagnosis of macrocytic anemia. A peripheral blood smear would show hypersegmented neutrophils, with a portion of the neutrophils having greater than or equal to five lobes.

Serum B12 and folate levels also should be obtained. Folic acid deficiency also presents as macrocytic anemia and is often confused with B12 deficiency. Ordering serum levels of both B12 and folate can help differentiate between the two disease processes. A serum B12 above 300 pg/mL is interpreted as normal. Patients with B12 levels between 200 and 300 pg/mL are considered borderline, and further enzymatic testing may be helpful in diagnosis. Patients with B12 levels below 200 pg/mL are considered deficient. However, a low serum B12 level does not determine the etiology of the deficiency. If the etiology is uncertain, further testing should be done to investigate.

In patients with borderline B12 levels (200 to 300 pg/mL), further enzymatic testing should be performed. As described, B12 deficiency results in the accumulation of MMA and homocysteine. Thus, serum levels of MMA and homocysteine both should be elevated in cases of B12 deficiency. These lab values also can help to distinguish B12 deficiency from folate deficiency, in which homocysteine levels are elevated, but MMA levels are normal.

After a B12 deficiency confirmation, the etiology must be addressed. Often, a surgical history including a gastrectomy, resection of the terminal ileum, or gastric bypass will be the cause. If there is no pertinent surgical history, an appropriate GI workup for causes of malabsorption, such as Crohn's or celiac disease should be performed. In other cases, a history of adherence to a strict vegan diet may be the source. If both the GI and dietary workup is negative, then the cause is likely autoimmune. Blood tests for serum levels of anti-intrinsic factor antibodies may lead to the diagnosis of pernicious anemia. Classically, a test known as the Schilling test was used to diagnose pernicious anemia; however, this test is no longer performed. It involved having the patient orally ingest radiolabeled B12. If the patient excreted the radiolabeled B12 in the urine, it indicated normal B12 absorption. A problem with B12 absorption prevents radiolabeled B12 excretion into the urine, indicating a cause of malabsorption or pernicious anemia.[8][9][10]

Treatment of vitamin B12 deficiency involves repletion with B12. However, depending on the etiology of the deficiency, the duration and route of treatment vary. In patients who are deficient due to a strict vegan diet, an oral supplement of B12 is adequate for repletion.

In patients with a deficiency in intrinsic factor, either due to pernicious anemia or gastric bypass surgery, a parenteral dose of B12 is recommended, as oral B12 will not be fully absorbed due to the lack of intrinsic factor. A dose of 1000 mcg of B12 via the intramuscular route is recommended once a month. In newly diagnosed patients, 1000 mcg of B12 is given intramuscularly once a week for four weeks to replenish stores before switching to once-monthly dosing. Studies have shown that at doses high enough to fully saturate intestinal B12 receptors, oral B12 is also effective, despite a lack of intrinsic factor.

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