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Everardo Laboy
Saṃsāra (Devanagari: संसर) is a Pali and Sanskrit word that means "wandering"[1][2] as well as "world," wherein the term connotes "cyclic change"[3] or, less formally, "running around in circles." Saṃsāra is referred to with terms or phrases such as transmigration/reincarnation, karmic cycle, or Punarjanman, and "cycle of aimless drifting, wandering or mundane existence".[1][4][5] When related to the theory of karma it is the cycle of death and rebirth.[1][4][6]
The "cyclicity of all life, matter, and existence" is a fundamental belief of most Indian religions.[4][7][8] The concept of saṃsāra has roots in the post-Vedic literature; the theory is not discussed in the Vedas themselves.[9][10] It appears in developed form, but without mechanistic details, in the early Upanishads.[4][11][12] The full exposition of the saṃsāra doctrine is found in Śramaṇic movements such as early Buddhism and Jainism, as well as various schools of Hindu philosophy after about the mid-1st millennium BCE.[4][12][13] The saṃsāra doctrine is tied to the karma theory of Hinduism, and the liberation from saṃsāra has been at the core of the spiritual quest of Indian traditions, as well as their internal disagreements.[4][14][15] The liberation from saṃsāra is called Moksha, Nirvāṇa, Mukti, or Kaivalya.[4][5][16][17]
Saṃsāra (Devanagari: संसर) means "wandering",[1][2] as well as "world" wherein the term connotes "cyclic change".[3] Saṃsāra, a fundamental concept in all Indian religions, is linked to the karma theory and refers to the belief that all living beings cyclically go through births and rebirths. The term is related to phrases such as "the cycle of successive existence", "transmigration", "karmic cycle", "the wheel of life", and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence".[1][6][18] Many scholarly texts spell saṃsāra as samsara.[6][19]
According to Monier-Williams, saṃsāra is rooted in the term Saṃsṛ (संसृ), which means "to go round, revolve, pass through a succession of states, to go towards or obtain, moving in a circuit".[20] A conceptual form from this root appears in ancient texts as saṃsaraṇa, which means "going around through a succession of states, birth, rebirth of living beings and the world", without obstruction.[20] The term shortens to saṃsāra, referring to the same concept, as a "passage through successive states of mundane existence", a transmigration, metempsychosis, a circuit of living where one repeats previous states, from one body to another, a worldly life of constant change, that is rebirth, growth, decay and redeath.[5][20][21] The concept is then contrasted with the concept of moksha, also known as mukti, nirvāṇa, nibbāna or kaivalya, which refers to liberation from this cycle of aimless wandering.[5][20]
The concept of saṃsāra developed in the post-Vedic times, and is traceable in the Samhita layers such as in sections 1.164, 4.55, 6.70 and 10.14 of the Rigveda.[11][22][23] While the idea is mentioned in the Samhita layers of the Vedas, there is lack of clear exposition there, and the idea fully develops in the early Upanishads.[24][25] Damien Keown states that the notion of "cyclic birth and death" appears around 800 BC.[26] The word saṃsāra appears, along with Moksha, in several Principal Upanishads such as in verse 1.3.7 of the Katha Upanishad,[27] verse 6.16 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad,[28] verses 1.4 and 6.34 of the Maitri Upanishad.[29][30]
The word literally means "wandering through, flowing on", states Stephen J. Laumakis, in the sense of "aimless and directionless wandering".[31] The concept of saṃsāra is closely associated with the belief that the person continues to be born and reborn in various realms and forms.[32]
The historical origins of a concept of a cycle of repeated reincarnation or Punarjanman are obscure but the idea appears in texts of both India and ancient Greece during the first millennium BC.[38][39]
The idea of saṃsāra is hinted in the late Vedic texts such as the Rigveda, but the theory is absent.[11][40] According to Sayers, the earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanishads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals, although the idea is not fully developed yet.[24] It is in the early Upanishads where these ideas are more fully developed, but there too the discussion does not provide specific mechanistic details.[24] The detailed doctrines flower with unique characteristics, starting around the mid 1st millennium BC, in diverse traditions such as in Buddhism, Jainism and various schools of Hindu philosophy.[12]
[41][42][43] The evidence for who influenced whom in the ancient times, is slim and speculative, and the odds are the historic development of the Saṃsāra theories likely happened in parallel with mutual influences.[44]
While saṃsāra is usually described as rebirth and reincarnation (Punarjanman) of living beings (Jiva), the chronological development of the idea over its history began with the questions on what is the true nature of human existence and whether people die only once. This led first to the concepts of Punarmṛtyu ("redeath") and Punaravṛtti ("return").[21][45][46] These early theories asserted that the nature of human existence involves two realities, one unchanging absolute Atman (Self) which is somehow connected to the ultimate unchanging immortal reality and bliss called Brahman,[47][48] and that the rest is the always-changing subject (body) in a phenomenal world (Maya).[49][50][51] Redeath, in the Vedic theosophical speculations, reflected the end of "blissful years spent in svarga or heaven", and it was followed by rebirth back in the phenomenal world.[52] Saṃsāra developed into a foundational theory of the nature of existence, shared by all Indian religions.[53]
Rebirth as a human being, states John Bowker, was then presented as a "rare opportunity to break the sequence of rebirth, thus attaining Moksha, release".[48] Each Indian spiritual tradition developed its own assumptions and paths (marga or yoga) for this spiritual release,[48] with some developing the ideas of Jivanmukti (liberation and freedom in this life),[54][55][56] while others content with Videhamukti (liberation and freedom in after-life).[57][58]
The Ajivika tradition combined saṃsāra with the premise that there is no free will, while the Jainism tradition accepted the concept of soul (calling it "jiva") with free will, but emphasized asceticism and cessation of action as a means of liberation from saṃsāra it calls bondage.[70][71] The various sub-traditions of Hinduism, and of Buddhism, accepted free will, avoided asceticism, accepted renunciation and monastic life, and developed their own ideas on liberation through realization of the true nature of existence.[72]
A virtuous life, actions consistent with dharma, are believed by Hindus to contribute to a better future, whether in this life or future lives.[78] The aim of spiritual pursuits, whether it be through the path of bhakti (devotion), karma (work), jāna (knowledge), or raja (meditation) is self-liberation (moksha) from saṃsāra.[78][79]
The Upanishads, part of the scriptures of the Hindu traditions, primarily focus on self-liberation from saṃsāra.[80][81][82] The Bhagavad Gita discusses various paths to liberation.[73] The Upanishads, states Harold Coward, offer a "very optimistic view regarding the perfectibility of human nature", and the goal of human effort in these texts is a continuous journey to self-perfection and self-knowledge so as to end saṃsāra.[83] The aim of spiritual quest in the Upanishadic traditions is to find the true self within and to know one's Self, a state that it believes leads to blissful state of freedom, moksha.[84]
All Hindu traditions and Darśanas share the concept of saṃsāra, but they differ in details and what they describe the state of liberation from saṃsāra to be.[85] The saṃsāra is viewed as the cycle of rebirth in a temporal world of always changing reality or Maya (appearance, illusive), Brahman is defined as that which never changes or Sat (eternal truth, reality), and moksha as the realization of Brahman and freedom from saṃsāra.[66][86][87]
In Jainism, the saṃsāra and karma doctrine are central to its theological foundations, as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism, and their pioneering ideas on karma and saṃsāra from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition.[90][91] Saṃsāra in Jainism represents the worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence.[92][91][93]
The conceptual framework of the saṃsāra doctrine differs between the Jainism traditions and other Indian religions. For instance, in Jaina traditions, soul (jiva) is accepted as a truth, as is assumed in the Hindu traditions, but not assumed in the Buddhist traditions. However, saṃsāra or the cycle of rebirths, has a definite beginning and end in Jainism.[94]
The Jaina theosophy, like ancient Ajivika, but unlike Hindu and Buddhist theosophies, asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations, as they circle through saṃsāra.[99][100] As the soul cycles, states Padmanabh Jaini, Jainism traditions believe that it goes through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives.[101] With all human and non-human activities, such as rainfall, agriculture, eating and even breathing, minuscule living beings are taking birth or dying, their souls are believed to be constantly changing bodies. Perturbing, harming or killing any life form, including any human being, is considered a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects.[102][93]
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