Salmo 1 19

[Saustin Grody]

Salmois a genus of ray-finned fish from the subfamily Salmoninae of family Salmonidae, and is part of the tribe Salmonini along with the sister genera Salvelinus and Salvethymus. Almost all Salmo species are native only in the Old World (including most of Europe, coastal North Africa and part of West Asia around the Black Sea), the only exception being the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), which is also naturally found across the North Atlantic in eastern North America.

The number of distinct species and subspecies in Salmo is a debated issue. The Atlantic salmon and brown trout (Salmo trutta) are widespread species and have been introduced worldwide as farmed food fish or recreational game fish, while most of the other Salmo species are narrowly distributed forms endemic to single watersheds.

The name Salmo derives from the Latin salmō, meaning salmon. Vast majority of the Salmo species are actually trout, except the Atlantic salmon, which along with six Pacific species from the genus Oncorhynchus (also from the subfamily Salmoninae, but of a different tribe) constitute the only seven officially recognized species of salmon.

Atlantic salmon are an anadromous migratory fish that begin their life in freshwater and migrate to the ocean to feed and grow, and then return to freshwater to spawn in rivers. The species name salar means the leaper. These fish are very fast swimmers and can jump very high - almost 12 feet!

Hundreds of thousands of Atlantic salmon used to migrate from the Atlantic Ocean to rivers in North America. As early as 1864, hatcheries began raising Atlantic salmon to supplement wild populations because of concerns over declining stocks due to overfishing and damming of rivers.

Today, only small numbers return to Maine and eastern Canada. The Gulf of Maine Distinct Population Segment is currently listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act, and Critical Habitat was designated in 2009.

Atlantic salmon are an anadromous migratory fish that begin their life in freshwater and migrate to the ocean to feed and grow, and then return to freshwater to spawn in rivers. After spawning, adults bury their fertilized eggs under a foot of gravel in nests called redds. The eggs hatch in April and May, and after three to four weeks, the young salmon, called fry, swim up through the gravel to hunt for food. They will then spend two to three years in or very near the stream where they hatched, hunting for food under and between rocks, feeding, and growing. When they are about 6 inches long, they are called smolts and are ready to live in saltwater and migrate downstream back out to the ocean. There they will swim and surf the ocean currents to their feeding grounds near Greenland. They will spend one to three years in the ocean growing into an adult, and can travel over 6,000 miles before coming back to rivers where they were hatched, to spawn and reproduce.

Unlike Pacific salmon which die after spawning, Atlantic salmon can live to spawn several times during their lifetime. But because spawning and migration require a lot of energy, and because they can get eaten once they are back out in the ocean, repeat spawners are not the norm.

After spawning, adults bury their fertilized eggs under a foot of gravel in nests called redds. The eggs hatch in April and May, and after three to four weeks, the young salmon, called fry, swim up through the gravel to hunt for food.

The adults seek cold freshwater to spend the summer, and move to swift-running gravelly rivers or streams to spawn in October and November. After hatching, the young fish emerge from the gravel, and concentrate in nursery habitats, typically riffle areas with adequate cover, shallow water depth and moderate to fast water flow.

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The changes in the activities of mucus hydrolytic enzymes and plasma cortisol levels were examined following infection of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar with the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis and these changes were compared with those resulting from elevated plasma cortisol. Salmon were infected at high (Trial 1; 178 +/- 67) and low (Trial 2; 20 +/- 13) numbers of lice per fish and the activities of proteases, alkaline phosphatase, esterase and lysozyme in the mucus, as well as plasma cortisol levels were determined. At both levels of infection, there were significant increases of protease activity over time (1-way K-WANOVA; Trial 1, p = 0.004; Trial 2, p Brown Trout have also negatively affected fish species. For example, Brown Trout may have depleted the Modoc Sucker (Catostomus microps), an endangered species, in Rush Creek, Modoc County (Moyle and Marciochi 1975). Because of their predatory nature, Brown Trout were introduced into Flaming Gorge Reservoir to reduce populations of the Utah Chub (Gila atraria) (Teuscher and Luecke 1996). Competition with and predation by nonnative species (i.e., Catostomus sp., Creek Chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), Redside Shiner (Richardsonius balteatus), Burbot (Lota lota), Brown Trout (Salmo trutta), and Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush)) limit populations of the rare Bluehead Sucker (Catostomus discobolus) (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2010). Brown Trout occupy similar habitat types as, and predate upon, Roundtail Chub (Gila robusta) (a species of conservation concern) in Wyoming lakes (Laske et al. 2012). Nonnative predators, including Brown Trout, have been shown to reduce the abundance and diversity of native prey species in several Pacific Northwest rivers (Hughes and Herlihy 2012).

Belk, M.C., E.J. Billman, C. Ellsworth, and B.R. McMillan. 2016. Does habitat restoration increase coexistence of native stream fishes with introduced brown trout: a case study on the middle Provo River, Utah, USA. Water 8(4):121.

Bence, J.R., and K.D. Smith. 1999. An overview of recreational fisheries of the Great Lakes. Pages 259-306 in Taylor, W.W., and C.P. Ferreri, eds. Great Lakes fisheries policy and management: a binational perspective. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing, MI.

Budy, P.E., T. Walsworth, G.P. Thiede, P.D. Thompson, M.D. McKell, P.B. Holden, P.D. Chase, and W.C. Saunders. 2021. Resilient and rapid recovery of native trout after removal of a non-native trout. Conservation Science and Practice 3:e325.

Clearwater, S.J., C.W. Hickey, and M.L. Martin. 2008. Overview of potential piscicides and molluscicides for controlling aquatic pest species in New Zealand. Science & Technical Publishing, New Zealand Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.

Courtenay, W.R., Jr., D.A. Hensley, J.N. Taylor, and J.A. McCann. 1984. Distribution of exotic fishes in the continental United States. Pages 41-77 in Courtenay, W.R., Jr., and J.R. Stauffer, Jr., eds. Distribution, biology and management of exotic fishes. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

Courtenay, W.R., Jr., and J.D. Williams. 1992. Dispersal of exotic species from aquaculture sources, with emphasis on freshwater fishes. Pages 49-81 in Rosenfield, A., and R. Mann, eds. Dispersal of living organisms into aquatic ecosystems. Maryland Sea Grant Publication, College Park, MD.

Crawford, S.S. 2001. Salmonine introductions to the Laurentian Great Lakes: a historical review and evaluation of ecological effects. Canadian Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 132:1-205.

Houde, A.L.S., C.C. Wilson, and B.D. Neff. 2015a. Effects of competition with four nonnative salmonid species on Atlantic Salmon from three populations. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 144(5):1081-1090.

Laske, S.M., F.J. Rahel, and W.A. Hubert. 2012. Differential interactions of two introduced piscivorous salmonids with a native cyprinid in lentic systems: implications for conservation of roundtail chub. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 141(2):495-506.

Lintermans, M. and T. Raadik. 2003. Local eradication of trout from streams using rotenone: the Australian experience. Pages 95-111 in Managing invasive freshwater fish in New Zealand: Proceedings of a workshop hosted by the Department of Conservation, Hamilton, New Zealand.

Nudds, R.L., K. Ozolina, M. Fenkes, O.H. Wearing, and H.A. Shiels. 2020. Extreme temperature combined with hypoxia, affects swimming performance in brown trout (Salmo trutta). Conservation Physiology 8:11.

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