Genghis Khan 2 Pc
Emelia Lute
Temjin formally adopted the title "Genghis Khan", the meaning of which is uncertain, at an assembly in 1206. Carrying out reforms designed to ensure long-term stability, he transformed the Mongols' tribal structure into an integrated meritocracy dedicated to the service of the ruling family. After thwarting a coup attempt from a powerful shaman, Genghis began to consolidate his power. In 1209, he led a large-scale raid into the neighbouring Western Xia, who agreed to Mongol terms the following year. He then launched a campaign against the Jin dynasty, which lasted for four years and ended in 1215 with the capture of the Jin capital Zhongdu. His general Jebe annexed the Central Asian state of Qara Khitai in 1218. Genghis was provoked to invade the Khwarazmian Empire the following year by the execution of his envoys; the campaign toppled the Khwarazmian state and devastated the regions of Transoxiana and Khorasan, while Jebe and his colleague Subutai led an expedition that reached Georgia and Kievan Rus'. In 1227, Genghis died while subduing the rebellious Western Xia; following a two-year interregnum, his third son and heir gedei acceded to the throne in 1229.
Genghis Khan remains a controversial figure. He was generous and intensely loyal to his followers, but ruthless towards his enemies. He welcomed advice from diverse sources in his quest for world domination, for which he believed the shamanic supreme deity Tengri had destined him. The Mongol army under Genghis killed millions of people, yet his conquests also facilitated unprecedented commercial and cultural exchange over a vast geographical area. He is remembered as a backwards, savage tyrant in Russia and the Arab world, while recent Western scholarship has begun to reassess its previous view of him as a barbarian warlord. He was posthumously deified in Mongolia; modern Mongolians recognise him as the founding father of their nation.
When Genghis's grandson Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, he bestowed the temple name Taizu (太祖, meaning 'Supreme Progenitor') and the posthumous name Shengwu Huangdi (聖武皇帝, meaning 'Holy-Martial Emperor') upon his grandfather. Kublai's great-grandson Klg Khan later expanded this title into Fatian Qiyun Shengwu Huangdi (法天啟運聖武皇帝, meaning 'Interpreter of the Heavenly Law, Initiator of the Good Fortune, Holy-Martial Emperor').[5]
The Secret History survived through being transliterated into Chinese characters during the 14th and 15th centuries.[9] Its historicity has been disputed: the 20th-century sinologist Arthur Waley considered it a literary work with no historiographical value, but more recent historians have given the work much more credence.[10] Although it is clear that the work's chronology is suspect and that some passages were removed or modified for better narration, the Secret History is valued highly because the anonymous author is often critical of Genghis Khan: in addition to presenting him as indecisive and as having a phobia of dogs, the Secret History also recounts taboo events such as his fratricide and the possibility of his son Jochi's illegitimacy.[11]
Multiple chronicles in Persian have also survived, which display a mix of positive and negative attitudes towards Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Both Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani and Ata-Malik Juvayni completed their respective histories in 1260.[12] Juzjani was an eyewitness to the brutality of the Mongol conquests, and the hostility of his chronicle reflects his experiences.[13] His contemporary Juvayni, who had travelled twice to Mongolia and attained a high position in the administration of a Mongol successor state, was more sympathetic; his account is the most reliable for Genghis Khan's western campaigns.[14] The most important Persian source is the Jami' al-tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles) compiled by Rashid al-Din on the order of Genghis's descendant Ghazan in the early 14th century. Ghazan allowed Rashid privileged access to both confidential Mongol sources such as the Altan Debter and to experts on the Mongol oral tradition, including Kublai Khan's ambassador Bolad Chingsang. As he was writing an official chronicle, Rashid censored inconvenient or taboo details.[15]
There are many other contemporary histories which include additional information on Genghis Khan and the Mongols, although their neutrality and reliability are often suspect. Additional Chinese sources include the chronicles of the dynasties conquered by the Mongols, and the Song diplomat Zhao Hong, who visited the Mongols in 1221.[b] Arabic sources include a contemporary biography of the Khwarazmian prince Jalal al-Din by his companion al-Nasawi. There are also several later Christian chronicles, including the Georgian Chronicles, and works by European travellers such as Carpini and Marco Polo.[17]
Temjin was born into the Borjigin clan of the Mongol tribe[d] to Yesgei, a chieftain who claimed descent from the legendary warlord Bodonchar Munkhag, and his principal wife H'eln, originally of the Olkhonud clan, whom Yesgei had abducted from her Merkit bridegroom Chiledu.[25] The origin of his birth name is contested: the earliest traditions hold that his father had just returned from a successful campaign against the Tatars with a captive named Temchin-uge, after whom he named the newborn in celebration of his victory, while later traditions highlight the root temr (meaning 'iron') and connect to theories that "Temjin" means 'blacksmith'.[26]
Several legends surround Temjin's birth. The most prominent is that he was born clutching a blood clot in his hand, a motif in Asian folklore indicating the child would be a warrior.[27] Others claimed that H'eln was impregnated by a ray of light which announced the child's destiny, a legend which echoed that of the mythical Borjigin ancestor Alan Gua.[28] Yesgei and H'eln had three younger sons after Temjin: Qasar, Hachiun, and Temge, as well as one daughter, Temln. Temjin also had two half-brothers, Behter and Belgutei, from Yesgei's second wife Sochigel, whose identity is uncertain. The siblings grew up at Yesugei's main camp on the banks of the Onon, where they learned how to ride a horse and shoot a bow.[29]
When Temjin was eight years old, his father decided to betroth him to a suitable girl. Yesgei took his heir to the pastures of H'eln's prestigious Onggirat tribe, which had intermarried with the Mongols on many previous occasions. There, he arranged a betrothal between Temjin and Brte, the daughter of an Onggirat chieftain named Dei Sechen. As the betrothal meant Yesgei would gain a powerful ally and as Brte commanded a high bride price, Dei Sechen held the stronger negotiating position, and demanded that Temjin remain in his household to work off his future debt.[30] Accepting this condition, Yesgei requested a meal from a band of Tatars he encountered while riding homewards alone, relying on the steppe tradition of hospitality to strangers. However, the Tatars recognised their old enemy and slipped poison into his food. Yesgei gradually sickened but managed to return home; close to death, he requested a trusted retainer called Mnglig to retrieve Temjin from the Onggirat. He died soon after.[31]
Yesgei's death shattered the unity of his people, which included members of the Borjigin, Tayichiud, and other clans. As Temjin was only around ten and Behter around two years older, neither was considered old enough to rule. The Tayichiud faction excluded H'eln from the ancestor worship ceremonies which followed a ruler's death and soon abandoned her camp. The Secret History relates that the entire Borjigin clan followed, despite H'eln's attempts to shame them into staying by appealing to their honour.[32] Rashid al-Din and the Shengwu however imply that Yesgei's brothers stood by the widow. It is possible that H'eln may have refused to join in levirate marriage with one, resulting in later tensions, or that the author of the Secret History dramatised the situation.[33] All the sources agree that most of Yesgei's people renounced his family in favour of the Tayichiuds and that H'eln's family were reduced to a much harsher life.[34] Taking up a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they collected roots and nuts, hunted for small animals, and caught fish.[35]
As the family lacked allies, Temjin was taken prisoner on multiple occasions.[39] Captured by the Tayichiuds, he escaped during a feast and hid first in the Onon and then in the tent of Sorkan-Shira, a man who had seen him in the river and not raised the alarm. Sorkan-Shira sheltered Temjin for three days at great personal risk before helping him to escape.[40] Temjin was assisted on another occasion by Bo'orchu, an adolescent who aided him in retrieving stolen horses. Soon afterwards, Bo'orchu joined Temjin's camp as his first nkor ('personal companion'; pl. nkod).[41] These incidents, related by the Secret History, are indicative of the emphasis its author put on Genghis' personal charisma.[42]
Temjin returned to Dei Sechen to marry Brte when he reached the age of majority at fifteen. Delighted to see the son-in-law he feared had died, Dei Sechen consented to the marriage and accompanied the newlyweds back to Temjin's camp; his wife Čotan presented H'eln with an expensive sable cloak.[43] Seeking a patron, Temjin chose to regift the cloak to Toghrul, khan (ruler) of the Kerait tribe, who had fought alongside Yesgei and sworn the anda pact with him. Toghrul ruled a vast territory in central Mongolia but distrusted many of his followers. In need of loyal replacements, he was delighted with the valuable gift and welcomed Temjin into his protection. The two grew close, and Temjin began to build a following, as nkod such as Jelme entered into his service.[44] Temjin and Brte had their first child, a daughter named Qojin, around this time.[45]
Soon afterwards, seeking revenge for Yesgei's abduction of H'eln, around 300 Merkits raided Temjin's camp. While Temjin and his brothers were able to hide on Burkhan Khaldun mountain, Brte and Sochigel were abducted. In accordance with levirate law, Brte was given in marriage to the younger brother of the now-deceased Chiledu.[46] Temjin appealed for aid from Toghrul and his childhood anda Jamukha, who had risen to become chief of the Jadaran tribe. Both chiefs were willing to field armies of 20,000 warriors, and with Jamukha in command, the campaign was soon won. A now-pregnant Brte was recovered successfully and soon gave birth to a son, Jochi; although Temjin raised him as his own, questions over his true paternity followed Jochi throughout his life.[47] This is narrated in the Secret History and contrasts with Rashid al-Din's account, which protects the family's reputation by removing any hint of illegitimacy.[48] Over the next decade and a half, Temjin and Brte had three more sons (Chagatai, gedei, and Tolui) and four more daughters (Checheyigen, Alaqa, Tmeln, and Al Altan).[49]